Diasporas and conflict societies: conflict entrepreneurs, competing interests or contributors to stability and development?

Abstract

This paper summarises our state of knowledge regarding diaspora engagement in conflict socieities. It presents a map of possible diaspora contributions and their specific potential positive and negative impacts in societies experiencing or recovering from conflict. Following a discussion of diasporas and their motivations for engagement in their places of origin, the paper reviews the specific remittance, philanthropy, human capital and policy influence contributions, both positive and negative, that diasporas may make. Policy implications include the need more systematically to include considerations of diasporas in conflict/post-conflict interventions, and based on a more careful case-by-case analysis, using the provided map as a starting point. Such analyses can inform decisions of when to tolerate, unencumbered, diaspora engagement; when to facilitate or support such engagement; and when to consider strategic partnering with diaspora efforts. By mapping potential positive and negative influences of diasporas, the paper establishes why a more nuanced understanding of diasporas and peace and conflict is so important to policy and practice for a more peaceful world.

Notes

  1. Since the end of World War II, 236 armed conflicts have been recorded worldwide, with 126 of those occurring since the end of the Cold War alone (Harbom et al., ‘Dyadic Dimensions’). In 2007, 34 of these conflicts were active. From 2002 to 2007 alone, 118 non-state conflicts occurred; these are conflicts involving rebel groups, or ethnic and/or religious communities.

  2. According to the OECD, in 2007 member countries spent $37.2 billion on 48 fragile and conflict-affected states, with 50 per cent of that reaching only five countries (Iraq, Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Pakistan, and Sudan) (OECD, ‘Ensuring Fragile States’, 2).

  3. By the end of 2007, conflicts had generated over 14 million refugees and asylum seekers and 21 million internally displaced people; worldwide, over 8.5 million refugees have been warehoused for 10 years or more (USCR, World Refugee Survey). In the United States alone, between 1980 and 2007, over 2.3 million refugees arrived (USOIS, 2007 Yearbook).

  4. See, for example, Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas.

  5. See, for example, Byman et al., Trends in Outside Support; King and Melvin, ‘Diaspora Politics’; Cohen, ‘Diasporas and the Nation State’.

  6. For an overview, see Brinkerhoff, Diasporas and Development.

  7. Brinkerhoff and Riddle, ‘Diaspora Research, Policy, and Practice’. The online survey (15 September–15 November 2008) was accessed by over 106 individuals, not all of whom completed the entire survey. We solicited participation through the GW Diaspora Research Programme listserv; authors publishing in Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies since its inception; invitations and dissemination requests to key personnel from research institutes with programmes related to diasporas and development, across the United States, Europe and Canada; and through a snowball sample. Approximately 73 per cent of respondents were based in developed countries, almost evenly split between North America (mostly the United States) and Europe; of the approximately 27 per cent of respondents from developing countries, 20 developing countries were represented. Given the sample size, we cannot assume that the findings are reliable; they are nevertheless suggestive of a knowledgeable population.

  8. Shain and Barth, ‘Diasporas and International Relations Theory’.

  9. See Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.

 10. Adamson, ‘Globalization’, 32.

 11. Adamson and Demetriou, ‘Remapping the Boundaries’.

 12. Keck and Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders.

 13. See Lyons, ‘Conflict-Generated Diasporas’ on Ethiopia; and Koinova, ‘Can Conflict-Generated Diasporas be Moderate Actors’ on Lebanon.

 14. Schwartz et al., ‘The Private Sector's Role’.

 15. See Ostergaard-Nielsen, ‘The Politics of Migrants’ Transnational Political Practices’; Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.

 16. I use the phrase quality of life to refer to the typical outcomes of economic development. This may include but not be limited to supporting basic needs as well as improving important development outcomes such as health and education.

 17. See Kerlin, ‘Organizational Responses’; Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development’.

 18. Friedman, Cultural Identity.

 19. See Esman, ‘Diasporas and International Relations’.

 20. Portes and Zhou, ‘The New Second Generation’.

 21. See, for example, Waters, Black Identities.

 22. Guarnizo et al., ‘Assimilation and Transnationalism’.

 23. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas.

 24. See Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and Conflict Prevention’.

 25. Koinova, ‘Can Conflict-Generated Diasporas be Moderate Actors’.

 26. Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’, 333; see also Lyons, ‘Conflict-Generated Diasporas’.

 27. Baser and Swain, ‘Diasporas as Peacemakers’.

 28. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas.

 29. Brinkerhoff, Digital Diasporas

 30. Koinova, ‘Can Conflict-Generated Diasporas be Moderate Actors’; see also Shain, Marketing the American Creed Abroad.

 31. See, for example, Esman, ‘Diasporas and International Relations’; Cohen, ‘Diasporas and the Nation-State’.

 32. See Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.

 33. Sheffer, Diaspora Politics.

 34. Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.

 35. Uphoff, ‘Analytical Issues in Measuring Empowerment’.

 36. Hammond, ‘Obliged to Give’.

 37. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and Conflict Prevention’.

 38. See World Bank, Global Economic Prospects; IFAD, Sending Money Home.

 39. OECD, ‘Ensuring Fragile States’.

 40. Demmers, ‘New Wars and Diasporas’.

 41. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 320.

 42. Kulaksiz and Purdekova, ‘Somali Remittance Sector’.

 43. Maimbo et al., ‘Financial Sector Development in Somalia’.

 44. Nenova and Harford, ‘Anarchy and Invention’.

 45. Lindley, ‘The Influence of Migration’.

 46. See Lubkemann, ‘Remittance Relief’.

 47. See See Lubkemann, ‘Remittance Relief’ on Liberia.

 48. Byman et al., Trends in Outside Support. Notable cases include support to the Tamil rebels in Sri Lanka, Kurdish guerrillas in Turkey, and the Palestinian Liberation Organisation. The Irish Republican Army is a well-known demonstration of diasporas' role in sustaining conflict.

 49. Adamson, ‘Globalization’.

 50. Byman et al., Trends in Outside Support.

 51. Adamson, ‘Globalization’; ‘Crossing Borders’.

 52. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.

 53. Collier and Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievances in Civil War’; Collier et al., ‘Post Conflict Risks’, revisits these findings.

 54. Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’.

 55. See also Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.

 56. See, for example, Ibid.

 57. Human Rights Watch, ‘Funding the “Final War”’.

 58. Adamson, ‘Globalization’.

 59. Vertovec, ‘The Political Importance of Diasporas’.

 60. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 322.

 61. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 322

 62. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 322, 331.

 63. Quoted in Mohamoud, Mobilising African Diaspora, 28.

 64. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’; Kleist, ‘Mobilising “The Diaspora”’.

 65. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’, 334.

 66. Özerdem, ‘The Mountain Tsunami’.

 67. Kerlin, ‘Organizational Responses to Homeland Crises’.

 68. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development’.

 69. See Lubkemann, ‘Remittance Relief’.

 70. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development’.

 71. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development’; Brinkerhoff, ‘Diaspora Philanthropy’.

 72. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.

 73. Lubkemann, ‘Remittance Relief’.

 74. Adamson, ‘Globalization’.

 75. Horst and Gaas, ‘Diaspora Organizations from the Horn of Africa’.

 76. See for example, Gardner, Global Migrants, Local Lives.

 77. Portions of this section draw from Brinkerhoff, ‘Exploring the Role of Diasporas in Rebuilding Governance’.

 78. See, for example, King and Melvin, ‘Diaspora Politics’.

 79. See, for example, Brinkerhoff and Taddesse, ‘Recruiting from the Diaspora’.

 80. See Gillespie et al., ‘Palestinian Interest in Homeland Investment’.

 81. Chesterman et al., Making States Work.

 82. See, for example, IOM, World Migration 2005.

 83. See, for example, Black, ‘Return and Reconstruction in Bosnia-Herzegovina’.

 84. See, for example, Adamson, ‘Crossing Borders’.

 85. Wayland, ‘Ethnonationalist Networks’; Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.

 86. Byman et al., Trends in Outside Support.

 87. On the Kurds, see Koslowski, ‘International Migration and the Globalization of Domestic Politics’.

 88. Shain, Marketing the American Creed Abroad.

 89. See Brainard and Brinkerhoff, ‘Sovereignty Under Seige’ on Copts in Egypt.

 90. See Mohamoud, Mobilising African Diaspora.

 91. Biswas, ‘Nationalism by Proxy’.

 92. See, for example, Biswas, ‘Negotiating the Nation’.

 93. Brinkerhoff, ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development’.

 94. See Lubkemann, ‘Where in the World is Liberia?’.

 95. Djuric, ‘The Croatian Diaspora in North America’; quoted in Demmers, ‘New Wars and Diasporas’.

 96. Kleist, ‘Mobilising “The Diaspora”’; Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.

 97. See Lyons et al., The Ethiopian Extended Dialogue.

 98. Horst, ‘The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees’.

 99. See Zunzer, ‘Diaspora Communities and Civil Conflict Transformation’; PILPG, Engaging Diaspora Communities in Peace Processes.

100. Baser and Swain, ‘Diasporas as Peacemakers’.

101. Cochrane, ‘Irish-America’.

102. Hall and Swain, ‘Catapulting Conflicts or Propelling Peace’.

103. PILPG, Engaging Diaspora Communities in Peace Processes.

104. See, for example, Baser and Swain, ‘Diasporas as Peacemakers’.

105. Zunzer, ‘Diaspora Communities and Civil Conflict Transformation’.

106. Spear, The Potential of Diaspora Groups.

107. See, for example, Faist, ‘“Extension du Domaine de la Lutte”’; Sheffer, Diaspora Politics; Collier and Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievances’.

108. Cochrane, ‘Irish-America’.

109. See, for example, Demmers, ‘New Wars and Diasporas’.

110. Hall and Kostić, ‘Integration for Peace?’.

111. Brinkerhoff, ‘Diasporas and Identity’.

112. Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’, 335.

113. Adamson, ‘Crossing Borders’, 196.

114. Horst and Gaas, ‘Diaspora Organizations from the Horn of Africa’. For example, the Network of Ethiopian Muslims in Europe.

115. Biswas, ‘Negotiating the Nation’.

116. See, for example, Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’.

117. For example, International Alert in Armenia and Sri Lanka.

118. See PILPG, Engaging Diaspora Communities in Peace Processes. For example, DFID's support to the UK-based Sierra Leone Investment Forum.

119. Brinkerhoff, ‘Creating an Enabling Environment’.

120. Collier and Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievances in Civil War’. For example, Bigombe et al., ‘Policies for Building Post-Conflict Peace’.

121. Collier and Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievance in Civil War’; Collier et al., ‘Post-Conflict Risks’.

122. The authors do not discuss these findings, leaving the interpretation to those who may be relatively knowledgeable regarding diaspora peace-promoting activities.

123. For example, in Liberia, Lubkemann, ‘Remittance Relief’.

124. Adamson, ‘Crossing Borders’; ‘Globalization’.

125. See for example, Picciotto, ‘State Fragility’.

126. See, for example, Demmers, ‘Diaspora and Conflict’.

127. OECD, Concepts and Dilemmas, 7.

128. Horst and Gaas, ‘Diaspora Organizations from the Horn of Africa’.