Ex-combatants thinking differently: attitudes to threatening the state in post-conflict Côte d’Ivoire

ABSTRACT

Using data from 10 months of field research in Côte d’Ivoire, this article explores the question of why certain groups of ex-combatants in that country are interested in posing a threat to the state, while others are not. It finds that demobilised pro-Gbagbo fighters who have received the least from the post-conflict period are also those most apathetic about threatening the post-war order. The paper argues this is due to expectations among this group of combatants that they would receive meagre assistance in the aftermath of a conflict they had lost, and the perception that their post-war position would remain fixed. By contrast, those demobilised and reinserted Forces Nouvelles (FN) troops who had lofty expectations of the post-war period because of promises made to them during the conflict, were quick to become frustrated with the post-war reality and make aggressive demands of the government. The study underscores the importance of expectations management and effective communication strategies with ex-combatants in the aftermath of conflict.

KEYWORDS:

• Remobilisation
• ex-combatants
• DDR
• Côte d’Ivoire
• peace
• conflict

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the ESRC for funding my PhD research and field work in Cote d’Ivoire, which made this article possible. I am also grateful to the anonymous reviewers for the helpful feedback on earlier versions of this article.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 28 September 2018.

2. Ibid.

3. Jeune Afrique, ‘Côte d’Ivoire: Gbagbo Transféré à La Haye’. 30 November 2011.

4. Focus group with demobilised FN combatants, Korhogo, 22 November 2017; Focus group with demobilised FN combatants, Korhogo, 12 April 2018; Focus group with demobilised FN combatants, Man, 13 February 2018.

5. Interview with reintegrated FN soldier, Man, 2 August 2018.

6. Fofana, ‘Informalité et Hybridité’, 12.

7. Themnér, Violence in Post-Conflict Societies, 6.

8. Muggah et al., ‘Context Matters in Ethiopia’, 199.; Denov, Child Soldiers, 157.

9. Themnér cited in Shibuya, Demobilising irregular forces,119.; Nilsson, Dangerous Liaisons, 184.; Shibuya, Demobilising irregular forces, 117–118; UN, ‘Effective weapons and ammunition management’, 28.

10. Banégas and Losch, ‘La Côte d’Ivoire au Bord de l’Implosion’,144.; Bah, ‘Democracy and Civil War’, 604.

11. Charbonneau, ‘War and Peace in Côte d’Ivoire’, 512.

12. Leboeuf, ‘Comzones and the Army’, 246.

13. UN, ‘Report of the Secretary General on the UN Mission’, 3.

14. Guéhenno, The Fog of Peace, 101.

15. Guéhenno, The Fog of Peace, 107; Boone and Kriger, ‘Land Patronage and Elections’, 104.

16. Charbonneau, ‘War and Peace in Côte d’Ivoire’, 512.; Guéhenno, The Fog of Peace, 107–108.

17. Guéhenno, The Fog of Peace, 111.; Araoye, Côte d’Ivoire, 243.

18. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, ‘Peace Accords Matrix Demobilisation’, https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/accord/ouagadougou-political-agreement-opa.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Araoye, Côte d’Ivoire, 244.

22. BBC, ‘Ivory Coast Poll Overturned’. 3 December 2010.

23. Moody, ‘Peacebuilding’s Poster Child’. 23 January 2019.

24. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, ‘Peace Accords Matrix Demobilisation’, https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/accord/ouagadougou-political-agreement-opa.

25. Ibid.

26. Interview with government official, Blolequin, 29 July 2018; Interview with senior police official, Yamoussoukro, 6 April 2018.

27. Interview with government official, Blolequin, 29 July 2018; Interview with senior police official, Yamoussoukro, 6 April 2018; Interview with government official, Yamoussoukro, 6 February 2018; Interview with Ivoirian civilian, Abidjan, 8 November 2017.

28. UN, ‘Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration’, https://onuci.unmissions.org/en/disarmament-demobilisation-and-reintegration-ex-combatants-c%C3%B4te-d%E2%80%99ivoire.; Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 27 August 2018.

29. UN, ‘Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration’, https://onuci.unmissions.org/en/disarmament-demobilisation-and-reintegration-ex-combatants-c%C3%B4te-d%E2%80%99ivoire.; Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 27 August 2018.

30. Miran-Guyon, ‘The Côte d’Ivoire Armed Forces’, 280.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid.

33. UN, ‘Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration’, https://onuci.unmissions.org/en/disarmament-demobilisation-and-reintegration-ex-combatants-c%C3%B4te-d%E2%80%99ivoire.; Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 27 August 2018.

34. Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 28 August 2018.; UN, ‘Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration’, https://onuci.unmissions.org/en/disarmament-demobilisation-and-reintegration-ex-combatants-c%C3%B4te-d%E2%80%99ivoire.; Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 27 August 2018.

35. Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 27 August 2018.

36. Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 27 August 2018; Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 31 August 2018.

37. Fofana, ‘Informalité et Hybridité’, 24.; Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 27 August 2018.; Interview with former ADDR official, Abidjan, 31 August 2018.; Interview with ex-combatant, Abidjan, 22 February 2018.

38. Fofana, ‘Informalité et Hybridité’, 24.

39. Fofana, ‘Informalité et Hybridité’, 24.

40. Nilsson, Dangerous Liaisons, 47.

41. Bovcon, ‘The Progress in Establishing the Rule of Law’ 193.; International Crisis Group, ‘Côte d’Ivoire’, i.

42. Joe Bavier, ‘Militias Attacking Ivory Coast’. Reuters, 6 June 2012.

43. Focus group with ex-combatants, Man, 13 February 2018.; Interview with ex-combatant, Korhogo, 11 April 2018.; Interview with refugee, Toulepleu, 24 September 2018.; Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 23 September 2018.; Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 26 September 2018.; Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 27 September 2018.

44. Interview with ex-combatant, Bouaké, 19 November 2017.

45. Tansey, ‘Process Tracing’, p.766.

46. Nilsson, Dangerous Liaisons,109; Knight and Özerdem, ‘Guns, Camps and Cash’, 513.

47. Berdal, Building Peace After War, 129.

48. Bøås and Hatløy, ‘Getting In, Getting Out’, 34; Kaplan and Nussio, ‘Explaining Recidivism of Ex-Combatants’, 6.

49. Munive and Jakobsen, ‘Revisiting DDR in Liberia’, 376.

50. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 30.

51. Ibid.

52. Themnér cited in Shibuya, Demobilising Irregular Forces, 119; Shibuya, Demobilising Irregular Forces, 117–118.

53. Themnér, ‘A Leap of Faith’, 297.

54. Themnér, ‘A Leap of Faith’, 305.

55. De Waal, ‘Mission Without End?’, 102.

56. De Waal, ‘Mission Without End?’, 106.

57. Martin et al, ‘Ex-Rebel Authority After Civil War’, 13.

58. Ibid.

59. Cellule 39, ‘Eclaircissement de la Situation de Précarité’, 19 October 2017.

60. Focus group with ex-combatants, Korhogo, 22 November 2017.; Interview with ex-combatant, Bouake, 9 April 2018.

61. Interview with ex-combatant, Abidjan, 13 March 2018.

62. Ibid.

63. Focus group with ex-combatants, Korhogo, 22 November 2017.

64. Cellule 39, ‘Eclaircissement de la Situation de Précarité’, 19 October 2017.

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid.

67. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, ‘Peace Accords Matrix Demobilisation’, https://peaceaccords.nd.edu/accord/ouagadougou-political-agreement-opa

68. ‘Côte-d’Ivoire: Des Ex-Combattants’, Abidjantv.net.

69. Interview with ex-combatant, Korhogo, 12 April 2018.; Focus group with ex-combatants, Man, 13 February 2018.

70. Interview with ex-combatant, Bouaké, 9 April 2018.

71. Focus group with ex-combatants, Man, 13 February 2018.

72. Ibid.

73. Cellule 39, ‘Eclaircissement de la Situation de Précarité’, 19 October 2017

74. Martin et al, ‘Rebel networks’.

75. Diallo, ‘Cellule 39 in Cote d’Ivoire’,184; Leboeuf, ‘La Réforme du Secteur’, 35.

76. Leboeuf, ‘La Réforme du Secteur’, 35.

77. Focus group with ex-combatants, Korhogo, 22 November 2017.

78. Interview with ex-combatant, Bouaké, 10 April 2018.

79. Interview with ex-combatant, Bouaké, 9 April 2018.

80. Prefecture de Korhogo, ‘Arrête No 18ʹ, 21 March 2017.

81. Interview with ex-combatant, Bouaké, 9 April 2018; Interview with ex-combatant, Yamoussoukro, 4 April 2018.

82. Interview with ex-combatant, Bouaké, 9 April 2018.

83. Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 28 September 2018.

84. Ibid.

85. Interview with ex-combatant, Abidjan, 13 March 2018; Focus group with ex-combatants, Korhogo, 22 November 2017; Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 26 September 2018.

86. Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 27 September 2018; Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 27 September 2018; Interview with ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 27 September 2018.

87. Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 27 September 2018.

88. Focus group with ex-combatants, Korhogo, 22 November 2017; Interview with ex-combatant, Abidjan, 22 February 2018; Interview with ex-combatant, Yamoussoukro, 4 April 2018.

89. Interview with UNDP employee and former advisor to the Ivoirian government on the ADDR programme, Abidjan, 24 August 2018; Interview with former ADDR employee, Abidjan, 31 August 2018; Interview with pro Gbagbo ex-combatant, Guiglo, 9 February 2018; Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Guiglo, 21 July 2018.

90. Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 23 September 2018; Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 28 September 2018.

91. Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 27 September 2018.

92. Interview with pro-Gbagbo ex-combatant, Toulepleu, 27 September 2018.

93. Jeune Afrique, ‘Côte d’Ivoire: Gbagbo Transféré à La Haye’. 30 November 2011.; Le Monde, ‘Côte d’Ivoire: Charles Blé Goudé Transféré à la CPI’. 22 March 2014.

94. Miran-Guyon, ‘Côte d’Ivoire: The Return of the Elephant?’, 11.

95. VOA, ‘Le FPI Appelle au Boycott’. 22 March 2013.; Vincent Duhem, ‘Côte d’Ivoire: Le FPI Tendance Gbagbo’. Jeune Afrique, 18 August 2015; Africa Radio, ‘Côte d’Ivoire: l’Aile Dure Du Fpi’. 10 October 2018.

96. Jeune Afrique, ‘Législatives ivoiriennes: le RHDP remporte 167 sièges sur 254ʹ. 20 December 2016

97. Piccolino, ‘Rhétorique de la Cohésion Sociale’, 4.

98. Interview with soldier, Man, 2 August 2018.

99. Cook, ‘Côte d’Ivoire’s Post-Gbagbo’.

100. International Crisis Group, ‘A Critical Period for Ensuring Stability’, i.; Speight, ‘Warlord undone?’, 224.

101. Interview with soldier, Man, 2 August 2018.

102. Miran-Guyon, ‘The Côte d’Ivoire Armed Forces’, 289.; Interview with soldier, Man, 2 August 2018.

103. Miran-Guyon, ‘The Côte d’Ivoire Armed Forces’, 289.

104. Ibid.

105. Ibid.

106. Interview with soldier, Man, 2 August 2018.

107. Fofana, ‘Informalité et Hybridité’, 12.

108. Ibid.

109. Ibid.

110. Interview with soldier, Man, 2 August 2018.

111. Ibid.

112. Ibid.

113. Fofana, ‘Informalité et Hybridité’, 12.

114. Ibid.

115. Speight, ‘Warlord Undone?’, 224.; Piccolino, ‘Peacebuilding and Statebuilding’, 294.

116. Krebs and Licklider, ‘United They Fall’, 94.

117. Corey-Boulet, ‘Ivory Coast: Victor’s Justice’, 76.

118. Leboeuf, ‘Comzones and the Army’, 246.

119. Martin et al, ‘Ex-Rebel Authority After Civil War’, 27.

120. Martin, ‘Security Sector Reform’, 531.

121. Leboeuf, ‘Comzones and the Army’, 248.

122. Leboeuf, ‘La Réforme du Secteur de Sécurité’, 37.

123. Leboeuf, ‘La Réforme du Secteur de Sécurité’, 34; Bovcon, ‘The Progress in Establishing the Rule of Law’, 195.

124. Le Monde Afrique, ‘La Côte d’Ivoire’. 1 November 2016.

125. Leboeuf, ‘Comzones and the Army’, 248.

126. Ibid.

127. Baaz & Verweijen, ‘The Volatility of a Half-Cooked Bouillabaisse’, 566.

128. De Waal, ‘Mission Without End?’, 102.

129. Ibid.

Additional information

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Jessica Moody

Jessica Moody is an ESRC-funded PhD candidate in the department of War Studies at King’s College London. Her research focuses on the relationship between transitional justice and demobilisation, disarmament and reintegration programmes in post-conflict Côte d’Ivoire.