![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
Turkey’s institution of night watchmanship, or bekçilik, almost vanished during the 1990s as new recruitment was halted. Since 2016, however, the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) has renewed recruitment in line with its agenda of revitalizing the institution, with recruits now officially named Market and Neighborhood Watchmen. The new regulatory and administrative context is highly centralized while their duties are scarcely different from those of the regular police forces, giving the institution’s longstanding ambiguity or in-betweenness a more complicated form. In its attempt to publicly legitimize the institution, the AKP has relied on myth creation. Accordingly, this article contextualizes this process of double myth creation at the intersection of Turkey’s neoliberal security sector reforms and AKP’s securitization policies. In doing so, the article reveals the reasons underlying growing public anxiety regarding the institution.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Law no.7245, “The Law of Market and Neighborhood Watchmen”, was approved on June 11, 2020. https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2020/06/20200618-7.htm.
2 The main justification was that the existing bekçilik law, Law no.772, had become invalid given changing legislation and the incompatibility of its articles with contemporary social and legal conditions and needs. Nonetheless, many of the old law’s articles were included unchanged while the regulations accompanying the old law defining the bekçis’ codes of conduct and duties were retained. Finally, although the government declared that new regulations to accompany Law no.7245 would be issued within six months, no regulations have appeared after almost two years (Kara, “7245 Sayılı CMB Kanunu,” 1317-1318).
3 In 2016, the number of bekçis fell to 3,147 as the institution became obsolete. Since its reactivation, numbers rose to 21,311 by 2019 while 8,193 new MNW’s were recruited in 2020 (İrdem et al., Güvenliğin Kurumsal, 6). In March 2022, the government announced that 3,000 more would be hired by the end of the year (Official Gazette Date/Issue: March 4, 2022/31768).
4 See: Hülagü, “Post-Cold War Police Reform”” Batuman and Erkip, “Night Hawks”; Akarsu, “Citizen Forces”; and İrdem et al., Güvenliğin Kurumsal.
5 See: Karakaş. “Bekçilik Sistemi Geri Geldi.” Deutsche Welle, August 8, 2017, and “Bekçilerle bir Gece: Görev Başında Tanklık Ettik,” Hürriyet, February 5, 2020.
6 Batuman and Erkip, “Night Hawks,” 9.
7 Crank, “Watchman and Community,” 331.
8 Ibid., 325.
9 Ibid., 335.
10 Initially, after the new law was implemented, the Directorate of Mobile Patrols Unit administered the management and assignment of MNWs to their duty spots. Five months later, however, the Ministry of Interior officially assigned this responsibility to local police stations to engage MNWs locally. However, despite this new administrative approach, MNWs are still allocated to crime-laden hot spots rather than to specific neighborhoods where they can develop an insider relationship with the inhabitants (Memular.net, October 28, 2020).
11 Community policing “incorporates a philosophy that broadens the police mission from a narrow focus on crime and law enforcement to a mandate encouraging the exploration of creative solutions for a host of community concerns—including crime, fear of crime, perceptions of disorder, quality of life, and neighborhood conditions” (Kappeler and Gaines, Community Policing, 4).
12 Peoples and Vaughan-Williams, Critical Security Studies.
13 See: Börzel and Risse, Effective Governance; Cozzubo et al., “The Social Costs of Crime”; Alijla, Rust in Divided Societies; and Flew, “The Global Trust Deficit.”
14 Lippert and Walby, Policing Cities, 2.
15 Hülagü, “Post-Cold War Police Reform,” 107.
16 Ibid., 107.
17 See: Dario and Crichlow, “Emergent Dimensions”; Felix and Hilgers, “Community Oriented Policing”; Schaap, “Police Trust Building Strategies”; and Malone and Dammert, “The Police and The Public.”
18 Cardoso and Castro, “Urban Security in Portugal.”
19 Hülagü, “Post-Cold War Police Reform,” 116.
20 Ibid.,116.
21 Barker and Crawford, “Policing Urban Securities.”
22 Ibid., 18.
23 Hülagü, “Post-Cold War Police Reform,” 110.
24 Nyman, “Securitization Theory,” 52.
25 Gambetti, “Linç Girişimleri,” 31.
26 Goldstein, “Anthropology of Security,” 494.
27 Kaygusuz, “Authoritarian Neoliberalism,” 282.
28 Ibid., 282.
29 Kurgan, “Securitization Policies,” 313.
30 Ibid., 313.
31 Ibid., 312.
32 Ibid., 314.
33 Çalışkan, “Toward”; Yılmaz and Turner, “Deepening Authoritarianism”; and Glombitza, “Aftermath ..”
34 Kaygusuz, “Authoritarian Neoliberalism,” 282.
35 Batuman and Erkip, “Night Hawks.”
36 Bayartan, “Osmanlı Şehrinde Mahalle.”
37 Bayartan, “Osmanlı Şehrinde Mahalle,” 95m and Doğan, “Mahalle Bekçisi,” 258.
38 Doğan, “Mahalle Bekçisi,” 258.
39 Ibid., 261.
40 Aksungur, “Mahalle Bekçilerine Dair bir İnceleme,” 107.
41 Doğan, “Mahalle Bekçisi.”
42 “İstanbul Bekçileri Yarın Akşam Göreve Başlıyor,” Milliyet, August 13, 2017.
43 “Aksaray’da Çarşı ve Mahalle Bkçileri Göreve Başladı,” Yeni Akit, February 2, 2019.
44 “Kars’ta Gece Bekçileri Göreve Başladı,” Beyaz Gazete, March4, 2019.
45 “İstanbul Sokakları Gece Kartallarına Emanet,” TRT Haber, September 26, 2019.
46 Ibid.
47 “Gece Bekçilerinin Duyarlı Davranışı Takdir Topladı,” TRT Haber, January 23, 2020.
48 “Bekçiler Mahalleye Güven Verdi,” Polis Dergisi 25 (2019), 100.
49 “Balıkesir’de Yaşlı Kadının Alışverişini Bekçiler Yaptı,” TRT Haber, March 25, 2020.
50 See “Polisler ve Bekçiler Vefa Görevinde,” Polis Dergisi 26 (2020), 103, and “Bekçiler Adli Suçların Azalmasında Etkili Rol Oynuyor,” Polis Dergisi 26 (2020), 102.
51 İrdem et al., Güvenliğin Kurumsal, 7, 28-9, 30.
52 “CHP Polis ve Bekçi Şiddetinin Soruşturulması için Mecliste Komisyon Kurulmasını İstiyor,” Birgün, May 27, 2020.
53 See “LGBT’li Bireyler Geniş Yetkilerle Donatılan Bekçilerin Güvencesi Altında mı Olacaktır?” Kaosgl.org, June 12, 2020, and “CHP’li Altay AKP’li Olduğu için Bekçi Yapılan Olduğunu Söyledi,” Cumhuriyet, April 4, 2020.
54 “CHP’li Taşcıer Meclis Gündemine Taşıdı: Neredeyse Her Gün bir Bekçi Şiddeti Vakası Görüyoruz,” Birgün, May 16, 2020.
55 “Polis ve Bekçi Şiddetinin Sebebi Eğitim Eksikliği,” Deutsche Welle, May 29, 2020.
56 “Beyoğlu’nda Avukata Bekçi Şiddeti,” Bianet, July 6, 2020.
57 “Kutlamalar az daha Kana Bulanacaktı: Bekçiler Kontrolü Kaybetti,” ABC Gazetesi, May 16, 2021.
58 “Bekçiler Maske Takmayan Yurttaşı Darp Etti,” Cumhuriyet, May 9, 2021.
59 “Ankara’da Bekçi Şiddeti: Çöp Dökmeye Çıkan Genç Darp Edildi, Ailesine Gaz Sıkıldı,” Evrensel, May 23, 2020.
60 İrdem et al., Güvenliğin Kurumsal, 8.
61 See the movies: Bekçi Murtaza, 1965; Bekçiler Kralı (The King of Bekçis), 1979 and Bekçi, 1986.
62 Başaran, Control and Policing, 175, and Aksungur, “Mahalle Bekçilerine Dair bir İnceleme,” 97-8.
63 Aksungur, “Mahalle Bekçilerine Dair bir İnceleme,” 103.
64 Doğan, “Mahalle Bekçisi,” 261.
65 Aksungur, “Mahalle Bekçilerine Dair bir İnceleme,” 94.
66 Başaran, Control and Policing, 173.
67 Aksungur, “Mahalle Bekçilerine Dair bir İnceleme,” 110.
68 Doğan, “Mahalle Bekçisi,” 264.
69 Ibid., 264.
70 Ibid., 264.
71 Aksungur, “Mahalle Bekçilerine Dair bir İnceleme,” 114.
72 “Bekçiler Kendilerine Mahalle Muhafızı, Polis Yardımcısı veya Mahalle Polisi Denmesini İstiyor.” T24, April 21, 2020.
73 Bayartan, “Osmanlı Şehrinde Mahalle,” 104, and Şeker and Baytun, “Mahalle Ölçekli Güvenlik Uygulamaları,” 329.
74 Aksungur, “Mahalle Bekçilerine Dair bir İnceleme,” 113.
75 Doğan, “Mahalle Bekçisi,” 266.
76 Ibid., 267.
77 Dikici, “Türk Polis Teşkilatı,” 722, and Doğan, “Mahalle Bekçisi,” 270.
78 Şeker and Baytun, “Mahalle Ölçekli Güvenlik Uygulamaları,” 332.
79 See: Regulation No. 1222, October 10, 1966, Article 12 (Official Gazette, “Resmi Gazete Çarşı ve Mahalle Bekçilerinin Vazifeleri ile ilgili olarak Riayet Etmeleri Gereken Hususları Gösterir Yönetmelik”).
80 Night watchmen can take suspects into custody if there has been a public order offence. They are then supposed to inform the police forces for further action. Under the previous law, night watchmen could only work with the police whereas they can now also work with the gendarme (military police) forces.
81 According to Articles 3 and 4 of the side-regulation, bekçis are supposed to conduct their duties in designated regions or neighborhoods. Thus, while still locally connected legally, this is a centralized system in practice.
82 Batuman and Erkip, “Night Hawks,” 7.
83 Öztekin. “Mahalle Bekçilerinin Görev ve Yetkileri,” Hukukihaber.net, August 29, 2019.
84 See “Bekçi Parkta Köpek Gezdiren Genci Ayağından Vurdu,” Sözcü, March 5, 2021; “İstanbul’da Bekçi Şiddeti,” HalkTV, May 14, 2021; “Bursa’da Bekçi Şiddeti Vatandaşın Kamerasına Yansıdı,” Sözcü, May 13, 2021; and Bekçi Şiddeti Durmak Bilmiyor,” Birgün, May 18, 2021.
85 The Ministry of Interior shared an informative note about the differences between the authority of police and bekçi (NTV, June 5, 2020)
86 Aksungur, “Mahalle Bekçilerine Dair bir İnceleme,” 123.
87 The revision was made in Article 21 of Bekçilik Law no. 772.
88 Şeker and Baytun, “Mahalle Ölçekli Güvenlik Uygulamaları,” 332.
89 See: Article 14 of the regulation defining the “Duties and Codes of Conduct of the MNW”.
90 Ulutürk et al, “Community Oriented Policing,” 1947, 1950, and Akarsu, “Citizen Forces,” 29.
91 See the website: https://www.egm.gov.tr/toplum-destekli-polislik.
92 Akarsu, “Citizen Forces,” 34
93 İrdem et al., Güvenliğin Kurumsal, 6.
94 “Bekçilerle bir Gece,” Hürriyet, February 5, 2020.
95 “Bekçiler Mahalle Polisi Ünvanını Talep Ediyor,” Aydınlık, April 21, 2020.
96 “Bekçiler Fazla mı Sorguluyor?” Hürriyet, February 14, 2020.
97 Batuman and Erkip, “Night Hawks,” 8, 9.
98 The most discussed and criticized issue in the new bill was the authority given to MNWs regarding body searches because they were described in a very unrefined manner as ‘sıvazlamak’ (to stroke), thus giving MNWs authority to check a suspect’s body from outside their clothes. Police forces have the same authority if they have legitimate suspicion. Critics therefore had concerns regarding the limited training for MNWs compared to police forces (Yılmaz. “Bekçilere Sıvazlama Rötüşü.” Hürriyet, January 30, 2020).
99 Professor İbrahim Kaboğlu assessed the new Bekçi Law (Cumhuriyet, June 3, 2020).
100 See Law No. 6360, 12.11.2012, “On Dört İlde Büyükşehir Belediyesi ve Yirmi Yedi İlçe Kurulmasi ile Bazı Kanun ve Kanun Hükmünde Kararnamelerde Değişiklik Yapılmasına Dair Kanun”. The law transforms the status of village administrations into “urban” neighborhoods within the boundaries of 30 metropolitan provinces. The spatial authority of the Metropolitan Municipalities in these 30 provinces are extended to the outer limits of the provincial boundaries. The Special Provincial Administrations that mainly provided rural infrastructural services in the old system are totally abolished in this new system. The old local governmental system remains as it is in the other 51 provinces.
101 La Repubblica, “A considerate section of the population fears about the possible transformation of bekçis into Erdoğan’s militia,” published in Cumhuriyet, June 11, 2020).
102 “Bekçiler Ne Yapabilir, Ne Yapamaz?” Diken, June4, 2020.
103 “Ankara’da Translar Ekip Aracıyla Issız Yerlere Bırakıldı.” Bianet, October 18, 2018.
104 “Şiddet, Taciz, Tecavüz Önlenemiyor.” Evrensel, February 9, 2020.
105 Lawyer Cesim Parlak claims that a clause in the law that gives authority to MNWs to investigate the possibility of prostitution, or use, production or sale of drugs is problematic because MNWs could use this as a tool for monitoring a single woman’s life style and home (Gazeteemek, June 19, 2020). Following this news report, the General Directorate of Police made an official accusation about Parlak’s statements on June 20, 2020. They claimed that such statements were aimed at discrediting the security forces and did not reflect the reality (Hürriyet. June 20, 2020).
106 Erk Acarer’s critical news report mentioned that 50 percent of the MNW job admission criteria are based on interview evaluations. Rather than merit, the admission criteria are primarily based on informal references from the AKP and MHP (Nationalist Action Party). Some of the questions in the interview include: “What did you do that night?” [referring to the night of the failed coup on 16th July 2016]; “What do you think a good leader should be like?”, etc. (Acerer. “Bekçilik Erdoğan’ın Düdük Nostaljisi ya da Eski Türkiye’ye Özlemi Değil.” Birgün, June 8, 2020).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Neslihan Demirtaş-Milz
Neslihan Demirtaş-Milz is Professor in the Department of Political Science and Public Administration of İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Turkey. Previously, she was a research associate and adjunct faculty member at Regensburg University. She holds a PhD degree from the Department of Political Science at Bilkent University. Urban politics/space, neoliberal policies, low-income settlements in cities, migration, inter-group relations among migrants, informality, space/identity politics and urban security constitute her main research and teaching interests. She has conducted qualitative research projects in Ankara, İzmir and Dubai.
Ahmet Barbak
Ahmet Barbak holds a PhD in Public Administration from Ankara University, Turkey. He teaches public administration and policy at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Turkey. He conducted postdoctoral research at Balsillie School of International Affairs (BSIA), Canada. Prior to joining academia in 2015, he served in Turkish Armed Forces for more than a decade, including ISAF/NATO Turkish contingent in Afghanistan. He has recently worked as a key expert on individual and institutional capacity development in UNDP project on strengthening civilian oversight of internal security forces in Turkey. His research interests include public safety, security sector governance, development cooperation, and public sector reform.