Recent progress in the conversion of biomass wastes into functional materials for value-added applications

Figures & data

Figure 1. Films and hydrogels derived from different biomass wastes: (a) films from wastepaper; (b) cellulose nanofibril (CNF) hydrogel from waste sackcloth; (c) film from durian rind; and (d) film from Eucalyptus globulus wood chips [59, 79–81] (Reproduced by permissions from [80], copyright [2014, The Royal Society of Chemistry], from [59], copyright [2020, Elsevier], from [79], copyright [2015, Elsevier] and from [81], copyright [2019, Elsevier])

Table 1. Extraction of natural polymers from biomass wastes

Polymer	Raw material	Extraction method	Extraction yield (%)	Purity
Cellulose	Coconut shell [13]	Organosolv extraction: reaction with ethanol/HNO3 followed by NaOH	70–95*	Free of lignin and hemicellulose
	Oil palm frond (OPF) [66]	Different concentrations of NaOH solution under pressure and non-pressure	n.d.	91.33%
	Areca nut husk [14]	Chemo-mechanical method: milling, homogenization, alkali treatment, acid hydrolysis, and bleaching	22–26**	85.47%
Lignin	Rice straw [67]	Alkaline (sodium hydroxide) and acidic (formic acid/acetic acid) treatment	n.d.	n.d.
	Corn stover [68]	Organic amine and organosolv synergetic pretreatment	81.7*	n.d.
	Sugarcane bagasse [69]	Ionic liquid	90.1*	Almost in pure form
Collagen	Skin/hide trimming wastes [70]	Propionic acid and acetic acid solubilization	93*	n.d.
	Bovine hide [71]	Acid-solubilization and acid-enzyme solubilization (AES)	n.d.	75.13%
	Chicken sternal cartilage [72]	Pepsin and ultra-sonication treatment	~80*	High purity
Gelatin	Atlantic mackerel skins [73]	Organic acids: acetic, citric, lactic, tartaric, or malic acid	29.6–31.8*	n.d.
	Camel skins [74]	Calcium hydroxide and ammonium sulfate	36.8–42.2*	88.21–90.42%
	Golden carp [75]	Prior-ultrasonication-acid treatment	62.12*	n.d.
Keratin	Chicken feathers [45]	Thermo-chemical treatments with different reducing agents	82–94*	n.d.
	Red sheep’s hair [76]	Sodium metabisulfite, urea with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SMBS)	96*	Higher than 90%
	Hog hair [77]	A two-step thermal hydrolysis process	68*	89.2%
Chitin Chitosan	Shells of crab, crayfish and shrimp [78]	Twice NaClO treatments before demineralization and deproteinization	n.d.	n.d.
	Shrimp shells [43]	Concentrated and diluted chloric acids, nitric acids, and sulfuric acids	n.d.	n.d.

*Calculated by the weight of extracted polymer/the weight of polymer in raw material

**Calculated by dry weight of extracted polymer/dry weight of raw material

n.d. Not determined

Figure 2. SEM images of carbon-based materials derived from biomass wastes: (a) lignin-modified graphene aerogel from corncob; (b) activated carbon from rambutan peel; (c) biochar from wheat straw; and (d) graphitic-carbon nanoflakes from green tea waste [2,97,121,122] (Reproduced by permissions from [2], copyright [2016, Elsevier], from [97], copyright [2018, Elsevier], from [121], copyright [2014, Elsevier] and from [122], copyright [2019, Elsevier])

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of Fe₃C/C composite for methylene blue removal and NOR degradation [134] (Reproduced by permission from [134], copyright [2019, Elsevier])

Table 2. Electrode porous carbons derived from biomass wastes

Raw Material	Treatment	Electrolyte	Specific capacitance
Rice husks [135]	KOH activation, at temperatures between 400 and 900°C	6 M KOH	367 F/g at 5 mV/s*
		1.5 M tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEA-BF4) in acetonitrile	174 F/g at 5 mV/s*
Loblolly pine chips [16]	Different carbonization methods and NaOH activation	6 M KOH	74 F/g at 20 mV/s*
Tissue paper produced by wood pulp [136]	One-step carbonization and activation treatment	6 M KOH	~200 F/g at 1 mV/s*
Tissue paper produced by straw [136]			~150 F/g at 1 mV/s*
Dawn redwood cone [137]	Pre-carbonization and chemical activation	6 M KOH	197 F/g at 1.0 A/g*
Starch-based packing peanuts [119]	KOH activation	1 M TEA-BF4 in acetonitrile	149 F/g at 0.5 mA/cm^2*
Cherry stones [138]	Pretreatment of lignin dissolution-precipitation	6 M KOH	370.5 F/g at 0.5 A/g**
Palm-shell [139]	Graphitic activated carbon prepared by dispersion of AC in the graphene layers	1 M HCl	54.6 F/g**
Green tea waste [140]	KOH activation with water or hydrochloric acid treatment	1 M H2SO4	~162 F/g at 0.5 A/g**

*Tested in two-electrode system

**Tested in three-electrode system

Figure 4. SEM images and elemental mapping of composite materials derived from biomass wastes: (a) silica-loaded biochars from bamboo; and (b) nitrogen and boron dual-doped aerogel from pomelo peel [146,148] (Reproduced by permissions from [146] and [148], copyright [2019, Elsevier])

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