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Original Articles

Catholic Modernities in Fascist Italy: the Intellectuals of Azione Cattolica

Pages 329-341 | Published online: 18 May 2007
 

Notes

* I would like to thank Ruth Ben‐Ghiat, Martin Conway and Anna Spencer who kindly read earlier drafts of this paper.

1. Aldo Moro, Giulio Andreotti, Amintore Fanfani, Guido Gonella, Mario Scelba, Paolo Emilio Taviani, Mario Scelba, to name a few, had all been active members of these associations. For the history of the organisations see, for example, M.L. Paronetto Valier, Competenza e Responsabilità: Spiritualità delle professioni (Rome: Studium, 2002); Cristina Giuntella, La Fuci tra Modernismo, Partito Popolare e Fascismo (Rome: Studium, 2000); Richard J. Wolff, Between Pope and Duce: Catholic students in Fascist Italy (New York: Peter Lang, 1990); and Renato Moro, La formazione della classe dirigente cattolica, 1929–1937 (Bologna: il Mulino, 1979).

2. For this somewhat naïve approach see, for example, Jay P. Corrin, Catholic Intellectuals and the Challenge of Democracy (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 2002).

3. V. Ferrone, “Chiesa cattolica e modernità: La scoperta dei diritti dell’uomo dopo l’esperienza dei totalitarismi”, in Franco Bolgiani, Vincenzo Ferrone, Francesco Margiotta Broglio, eds, Chiesa cattolica e modernità: Atti del convegno della fondazione Michele Pellegrino (Bologna: il Mulino, 2004).

4. Paul Betts, “The New Fascination with Fascism: the case of Nazi Modernism”, Journal of Contemporary History, 37/4 (2002), pp.541–58; and Peter Fritzsche, “Nazi Modern”, Modernism/modernity, 3/1 (1996), pp.1–21.

5. Not coincidentally, Stephen Kern entitled his now ‘classic’ study dealing with these topics, first published in 1983, The culture of time and space, 1880–1918 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003).

6. M. Berman, All that is solid melts into air: The experience of modernity (London: Verso, 1983).

7. See the excellent observations by Emile Poulat in his Chiesa contro borghesia: Introduzione al divenire del cattolicesimo contemporaneo (Casale Monferrato: Marietti, 1984), pp.231 ff.

8. Niccolò Zapponi, La modernità deviante (Bologna: il Mulino, 1993); and Susan Stanford Friedman, “Definitional Excursions: the meanings of Modern/Modernity/Modernism”, Modernism/modernity, 8/3 (2001), pp.493–513.

9. For a recent example of this interpretation, see Richard Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy: Life under the dictatorship (London: Penguin, 2005).

10. Roger Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London: Routledge, 1993), p.47.

11. Emilio Gentile, “The Myth of National Regeneration in Italy: from Modernist Avant‐Garde to Fascism”, in Matthew Affron and Mark Antliff, eds, Fascist Visions: Art and Ideology in France and Italy (Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1997), pp.25–44.

12. George L. Mosse, The Fascist Revolution: Toward a general theory of Fascism (New York: Howard Fertig, 2000), pp.137–55.

13. Goerge L. Mosse, Masses and Man: Nationalist and Fascist perceptions of reality (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987), p.11.

14. Emilio Gentile, Le origini dell’ideologia fascista 1918–1925 (Bologna: il Mulino, 1996), pp.3–49.

15. On the important concept of the future in fascist ideology, see Pier Giorgio Zunino, L’ideologia del fascismo: Miti, credenze e valori nella stabilizzazione del regime (Bologna: il Mulino, 1995), pp.122–29.

16. See Ruth Ben‐Ghiat’s fine study, Fascist modernities: Italy, 1922–1945 (London: University of California Press, 2001), pp.4ff. The field of fascism and modernity has been one of the most intensely debated in recent years. See, for example, Claudia Lazzaro, Roger J. Crum, eds, Donatello among the blackshirts: History and modernity in the visual culture of Fascist Italy (London: Cornell University Press, 2005); Domenico Settembrini, “Fascismo e modernità”, in Alessandro Campi, ed., Che cos’è il fascismo? Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerca (Rome: Ideazione, 2003), pp.375–406; Mark Antliff, “Fascism, Modernism and Modernity”, The Art Bulletin 84/1 (2002), pp.148–69; Walter L. Adamson, “Avant‐garde modernism and Italian Fascism: cultural politics in the era of Mussolini”, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 6/2 (2001), 230–48; and his “Modernism and Fascism: the politics of culture in Italy, 1913–1922”, American Historical Review 95/2 (1990), pp.359–90; and Emilio Gentile, “The conquest of modernity: From modernist nationalism to Fascism”, Modernism/modernity, 1/3 (1994), pp.55–87.

17. Emilio Gentile, Fascismo: Storia e interpretazione (Rome: Laterza, 2002), pp.235–64.

18. For this ideal see, among others, Francesco Traniello, “L’Italia cattolica nell’era fascista”, in Gabriele De Rosa, Tullio Gregory, André Vauchez, eds, Storia dell’Italia religiosa: L’età contemporanea (Bari: Laterza, 1995), pp.257–99; Guido Formigoni, L’Italia dei cattolici: Fede e nazione dal Risorgimento alla Reppublica (Bologna: il Mulino, 1998); and G. Vecchio, “Pattriotismo e universalismo nelle associazioni laicali cattoliche”, in Antonio Acerbi, ed., La Chiesa e l’Italia: Per una storia dei loro rapporti negli ultimi due secoli (Milan: Vita e Pensiero, 2003), pp.233–74.

19. P. Scoppola, “Gli orientamenti di Pio XI e Pio XII sui problemi della società contemporanea”, in Maurilio Guasco, Elio Guerriero, Francesco Traniello, eds., I Cattolici nel mondo contemporaneo, 1922–1958 (Milan: San Paolo, 1996), p.139. This is not to say that there were no conflicts between the church and fascism. It is enough to recall the crises over Catholic Action in 1931 and 1938 which, however, never led to any definitive break with the regime.

20. La Redazione, “La fine dell’anticlericalismo”, Studium, 2–3 (1929).

21. For more detailed chronological accounts of the conflict, see Moro (note 1), pp.366–91 and Wolff (note 1), pp.148–54.

22. Anon., “Italia in piedi!”, Azione fucina, 6 October 1935.

23. For the complex relationship between Catholics and the Imperial idea, see Renato Moro, “Il mito dell’impero in Italia fra universalismo cristiano e totalitarismo”, in Daniele Menozzi, Renato Moro, eds, Cattolicesimo e totalitarismo: Chiese e culture religiose tra le due guerre mondiali (Italia, Spagna, Francia) (Brescia: Morcelliana, 2004), pp.311–71.

24. Giovanni Ambrosetti, “Ripresa”, Azione fucina, 3 November 1935.

25. Anon., “Fede e patria”, Azione fucina, 8 March 1936.

26. Ben‐Ghiat (note 16), p.126.

27. Paolo Barale, “Colonia e Impero”, Azione fucina, 28 June 1936.

28. “Impero Italiano”, Azione fucina, 3 May 1936.

29. Mario Cortellese, “Italia imperiale”, Azione fucina, 9 May 1937.

30. Letter from Rodolfo Meomartini to President Ambrosetti, 18 October 1935, in the Archives of the Presidency of the FUCI, b. ‘Presidency 1933/35’.

31. For a synthetic account of this myth, see M. Isnenghi, “Il mito di potenza”, in Angelo Del Boca, Massimo Legnani, Mario G. Rossi, eds, Il regime Fascista: Storia e storiografia (Rome: Laterza, 1995), pp.139–50.

32. Paolo Emilio Taviani, “La nuova pace e il nuovo impero”, Vita e pensiero, June 1936.

33. For demographic policies during the regime see, for example, Carl Ipsen, Dictating demography: the problem of population in Fascist Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and David G. Horn, Social bodies: science, reproduction and Italian Modernity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). For an interesting comparison between fascist and Catholic conceptions of the family, see C. Dau Novelli, Famiglia e modernizzazione in Italia tra le due Guerre (Rome: Studium, 1994).

34. See Pius XI’s noted Encyclical Casti Connubii, 31 December 1930.

35. Novelli (note 31), p.103.

36. Augusto Baroni, “Famiglia e Nazione”, Studium, 11 (1935).

37. Guido Lami, “Finalità biologica e demografia”, Azione fucina, 26 December 1937.

38. Guido Lami, “Finalità biologica e demografia”, Azione fucina, 19 December 1937.

39. Arturo Arrigoni, “Il compito del medico nella società moderna”, Aspetti del problema demografico: 2do quaderno della rivista Studium per I medici, June (1938), pp.8–9.

40. Ibid., p.15.

41. Guido Lami, “Il problema demografico dal punto di vista biologico”, in ibid., p.63. Guido Lami, Professor of Pathology at the University of Pisa and active member of the Movimento Laureati, went on to praise ‘the formidable example of Nazi Germany’ as a case of how the human will could shape and alter demographic patterns.

42. Nello Palmieri, “Eugenica distruttiva ed eugenica costruttiva”, in ibid., p.45.

43. “Rassegne”, Azione fucina, 29 January 1933.

44. Carlo Bo, “Letteratuta come vita”, Il Frontespizio, September 1938.

45. For good overviews of literature in fascist Italy see, for example, Giulio Ferroni, Storia e testi della letteratura italiana: Guerre e fascismo, 1910–1945 (Città di Castello: Mondadori, 2004); Giuliano Manacorda, Storia della letteratura contemporanea, 1900–1940 (Rome: Editori Riuniti, 1999); and Giorgio Luti, La letteratura del ventennio fascista: Cronache letterarie tra le due guerre (Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1972).

46. Filomena Brocchieri, “Tempo di costruire”, Azione fucina, 12 March 1933.

47. For the realist trend see, Ben‐Ghiat (note 16), pp.46–69; Giuseppe Langella, Il secolo delle riviste (Milan: Vita e pensiero, 1982); and C. De Michelis, Alle origini del neorealismo (Cosenza: Lerici, 1980).

48. Angelo Scarpellini, “Rampogne al Novecento”, Azione fucina, 19 January 1936.

49. Egidio Cabianca, “Ha ragione Bontempelli”, Studium, 7–8 (1933).

50. For Italian attitudes to America in the period under study see, for example, the relevant chapters in Victoria de Grazia’s latest work, Irresistible Empire: America’s advance through 20th Century Europe (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005); Daniela Saresella, Cattolicesimo Italiano e sfida Americana (Brescia: Morcelliana, 2001); Michel Beynet, L’image de l’Amerique dans la culture italienne de l’entre deux guerres, 3 Vols (Aix‐en‐Provence: Université de Provence, 1990); and Emilio Gentile, “Impending Modernity: Fascism and the ambivalent image of the United States”, Journal of Contemporary History, 28/1 (1993), pp.7–29.

51. P.A. Vermeersch, “L’attualità dell’enciclica”, Studium, 5–6 (1931), in which the author triumphantly proclaims that Pius XI’s influential encyclical, Quadragesimo anno, had ‘overthrown forever the liberal economy’.

52. E.M., “Lettere dall’estero: Le deficienze della mentalità Americana”, Studium, 2 (1931). The author also solemnly warns against threatening evils, such as showing films in English to foreign audiences!

53. A. Zamboldi, “Furore, di John Steinbeck”, Azione fucina, 23 June 1940.

54. Abi, “Quattro romanzi”, Studium, 6 (1940).

55. For the Baudelarian conception of modernity see the fine analysis by Berman (note 6), p.131–71.

56. O.S, “Due libri americani”, Azione fucina, 30 April 1933.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid.

59. Ibid.

60. Good overviews on the mainstream ecclesiology during the pontificate of Pius XI can be found in Marc Agostino, Le pape Pie XI et l’opinion, 1922–1939 (Rome: École Française de Rome, 1991), pp.82ff and G. Martina, “L’Ecclesiologia prevalente nel pontificato di Pio XI”, in Alberto Monticone, ed., Cattolici e fascisti in Umbria, 1922–1945 (Bologna: il Mulino, 1978), pp.221–44.

61. On Guano, see Luca Rolandi, Emilio Guano: Religione e cultura nella Chiesa italiana del novecento (Catanzaro: Rubbettino, 2001); Maria Luisa Paronetto Valier, ed., Emilio Guano: Coscienza/Libertà/Responsabilità (Rome: Studium, 1998); and Alberto Ablondi, Anastasio Ballestrero and Massimo Marcocchi, eds, Don Guano: Vescovo Teologo (Rome: Studium, 1992).

62. E. Guano, La Chiesa (appunti di lezioni) (Rome: Studium, 1936), pp.24–25.

63. Ibid., p.138.

64. Ibid., pp.99–100.

65. Ibid.

66. The article was published under the significant title “Il mondo moderno e la fede: Cause dell’incredulità contemporanea” in the 1935 issues of 20 October, 3 November and 17 November.

67. Ibid., 20 October 1935.

68. Ibid., 17 November 1935.

69. Ibid.

70. Ibid.

71. Ibid., 20 October 1935.

72. Ibid., 17 November 1935.

73. Fausto Montanari, “Umanesimo cristiano”, Azione fucina, 5 March 1933.

74. G.G, “I giovani e il cattolicismo”, Azione fucina, 9 November 1933.

75. Sanford Schwartz, The Matrix of Modernism: Pound, Eliot and early Twentieth Century Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), pp.4–6.

76. Giuseppe A. Maria Nini, “…e su di una protesta”, Azione fucina, 27 May 1934.

77. Nerio Benzi, “Sulla goliardia”, Azione fucina, 27 May 1934.

78. Nicola Ciancio, “Goliardia ed apostolato”, Azione fucina 22 December 1935.

79. Giovanni Papini, Storia di Cristo in his Cristo e Santi (Milan: Mondadori, 1962), p.29.

80. Filippo Piemontese, “Gianfalco e la giovinezza”, Azione fucina, 25 March 1934.

81. Ibid.

82. Vittore Branca, “Lo spirito nella vita”, Azione fucina, 26 January 1936.

83. Vittorio Favilli, “Vincenzo Picotti”, Azione fucina, 8 March 1936.

84. Don Cojazzi, “Don Bosco: il grande Santo italiano”, Azione fucina, 1 April 1934.

85. Uberto Breganze, “La modernità di Don Bosco”, Azione fucina, 22 April 1934.

86. Angelo Raffaele Jervolino, “Il nostro patrono”, Gioventù nova, 5 April 1934.

87. Paolo Barale, “Don Bosco e l’ottocento”, Studium, 3 (1934).

88. Frassati was beatified by John Paul II in 1990.

89. M.S. Gillet O.P., “Pier Giorgio Frassati presentato come modello”, Gioventù nova, 3 April 1932.

90. “Pier Giorgio Frassati”, Azione fucina, 1 April 1934.

91. Antonio Cojazzi, “Cristianesimo operoso”, Azione fucina, 3 July 1938.

92. Spectator (Alcide De Gasperi), “Novità e azione”, Studium, 5 (1935).

93. Ibid.

94. Ibid.

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