Soft Security Threats and Small States: the Case of Estonia

Abstract

This article will attempt to establish what is the relationship between domestic and international strategies taken by small states. To do this, Estonia will be used as a case study to examine how it has reacted to cyber-security, energy security, and national identity security. This work will take a qualitative critical approach that transcends common ontologies and epistemologies in International Relations. This will enable us to look at the relationship between levels of analysis, not just compartmentalize and compare them. A wide use of academic sources, open Estonian documents (both governmental and non-governmental), as well a semi-structured interview with an official of the Ministry of Defense will be used. This article concludes that small States will need to use all their resources, on both the domestic and international levels, to be successful in facing soft security.

Notes

1 Security Police of the Republic of Estonia, Annual Review 2010, accessed from <www.kapo.ee/cms-data/_text/138/124/files/kapo-aastaraamat-2010-eng.pdf> on 11.16.2012 pp.8–10.

2 Stephen Walt, ‘Alliance Formation and the Balance of World Power’, International Security (Spring 1985) p.18.

3 Jeanne Hey, (ed.), Small States in World Politics: Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior (London: Lynne Rienner 2003) p.1.

4 Ronald Asmus, A Little War that Shook the World (New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2010).

5 Ugar Ziyal,‘Re-Conceptualization of Soft Security and Turkey’s Civilian Contributions to International Security’. Turkish Policy Quarterly (Feb. 2004) p.3,<www.turkishpolicy.com/images/stories/2004-02-globalsecurity/TPQ2004-2-ziyal.pdf>, accessed on 16 Nov. 2012.

6 Hey (note 3) p.194.

7 Miriam Fendius Elman, ‘The Foreign Policies of Small States: Challenging Neorealism in Its Own Backyard’, British Journal of Political Science (April 1995) p.172.

8 Hey (note 3) p.8.

9 Elman (note 7).

10 Hey (note 3).

11 Christine Ingebritsen, Iver B. Neumann, Sieglinde Sgtöhl, and Jessica Beyer, Small States in International Relations (Seattle: Univ.ashington Press 2006).

12 Robert Steinmetzand Anders Wivel, Small States in Europe (Farnham, UK: Ashgate 2010).

13 Hey (note 3).

14 Ibid. p.7.

15 Ibid. p.8.

16 Elman (note 7).

17 Ibid. pp.176–80.

18 Hey (note 3) p.7.

19 Ibid. p.2.

20 Elman (note 7) p.171.

21 Antola, Esko and Milla Lehtimäki, Small States in the EU: Problems and the Prospects of the Future (Jean Monnet Centre, Univ. of Turku Finland 2001) pp.13--14.

22 Steinmetz and Wivel (note 12) p.6.

23 Kenneth Waltz, ‘Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics’, in Robert Keohane (ed.) Neorealism and its Critics (New York: Columbia UP 1986) p.335.

24 Lene Hansen and Helen Nissenbaum, ‘Digital Disaster, Cyber Security, and the Copenhagen School’. International Studies Quarterly No. 53 (2009) p.1156, footnote 1.

25 Heli Tiirma-Klaar, ‘Emerging Cyber Security Agenda: Threats, Challenges and Responses’, in Andres Kasekamp (ed.), The Estonian Foreign Policy Yearbook 2008 (The Estonian Foreign Policy Institute). pp.153, 158.

26 Ibid. p.164.

27 David Sanger, ‘Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran’, New York Times, 1 June 2012, <www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=2&pagewanted=1> accessed on 12 June 012.

28 ‘Cyber-attack targets include White House and the Pentagon’, The Independent. 9 July 2009, www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/cyber-attack-targets-include-white-house-and-the-pentagon-1738569.html, accessed on 10 Oct. 2011.

29 Tiirma-Klaar (note 25) p.157.

30 Hansen and Nissenbaum (note 24) p.1170.

31 Eneken Tikkand Kadri Kaska, ‘Legal Cooperation to Investigate Cyber Incidents: Estonian Case Study and Lessons’, Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on Information Warfare and Security 2010, Thessaloniki, p.1, accessed from www.ccdcoe.org/articles/2010/Tikk_Kaska_LegalCooperation.pdf.

32 Ibid.

33 Defense Pros, ‘Estonian Defense Minister: A cyber-attack is no different than an ordinary attack’, 6 June 011, accessed from <www.defpro.com/news/details/25068/?SID=8f2d3ac8a587be5afceaeae378d3c929>.

34 Liis Kangsepp, ‘Estonia to Host EU’s IT Agency’, Wall Street Journal, 29 Nov.2012, <http://blogs.wsj.com/emergingeurope/2012/11/29/estonia-to-host-eus-it-agency/>, accessed on 18 Dec. 2012.

35 Christian Czosseck, Rain Ottis and Anna-Maria Talihärm, ‘Estonia After the 2007 Cyber Attacks: Legal, Strategic and Organisational Changes in Cyber Security’ (Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence, Tallinn 2011), Estonia, p.3, accessed from <www.ccdcoe.org/articles/2011/Czosseck_Ottis_Taliharm_Estonia_After_the_2007_Cyber_Attacks.PDF>.

36 EPP, ‘EU Cyber Security and Defence: Time to Act Now! Tunne Kelam MEP’, EPP Group in the European Parliament,. press release, 22 Nov. 2012. <www.eppgroup.eu/press/showpr.asp?prcontroldoctypeid=1&prcontrolid=11543&prcontentid=19197&prcontentlg=en>, accessed on 23 Nov. 012.

37 Ibid.

38 AFP, ‘Baltic States Urge NATO to Bolster Cyber-Defense’, 26 May 2011, accessed from <www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j5P7-YuCPfcBA5HGawA2OulYqUEw?docId=CNG.786a247f547d853c8e2d1faaf7adddf7.931>.

39 Czosseck et al. (note 35) p.3.

40 Ibid.

41 Liisa Tallinn, International Cooperation Department-Estonian Ministry of Defence. Interview by author, 9 Nov. 2011, Estonia Ministry of Defense, Tallinn.

42 CCDCEO, Funding Principles, 2011, accessed from <www.ccdcoe.org/43.html>.

43 Ibid.

44 Gates, Robert. ‘The Security and Defense Agenda’. Washington Post. Brussels, Belgium, 10 June 2011, <www.washingtonpost.com/world/the-security-and-defense-agenda-as-delivered-by-secretary-of-defense-robert-gates-brussels-belgium-june-10-2011/2011/06/10/AGqlZhOH_story.html> accessed 22 Nov. 2011.

45 CCDCEO, Baltic Cyber Shield Cyber Defence Exercise 2010 After Action Report, p.1

46 CCDCEO, MILCW, 2011, accessed from http://www.ccdcoe.org/249.html.

47 Ibid.

48 Tallinn (note 41).

49 Hey (note 3) p.194.

50 Tiirma-Klaar (note 25) p.170.

51 Ibid.

52 Defense pros (note 33).

53 President.ee. ‘President Toomas Hendrik Ilves’ keynote speech at the 3rd Annual Billington Cybersecurity Summit, Washington DC, 27 Sept. 2012’. President.ee, p <www.president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/8003-president-toomas-hendrik-ilves-keynote-speech-at-the-3rd-annual-billington-cybersecurity-summit-washington-dc-september-27th-2012/index.html>, accessed 20 Dec 2012.

54 Jill Daugherty,. ‘The West “Will Lose” the Cyber War’. CNN news. 20 April 2012, <http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/04/20/the-west-will-lose-the-cyber-war/>, accessed 20 Dec 2012.

55 Tiirma-Klaar (note 25) p.170.

56 Triinu, Lillepalu, ‘Master of Cyber Security’, Tallinn University of Technology, 9 Feb. 2011, <www.ttu.ee/programmes/master-studies-2/cyber-security/>.

57 Tom Gjelton, ‘Volunteer Cyber Army Emerges In Estonia npr.org.’, 12 Oct. 2011, www.npr.org/2011/01/04/132634099/in-estonia-volunteer-cyber-army-defends-nation.

58 Ibid.

59 Ibid.

60 Tallinn (note 41).

61 Ibid.

62 CCDCEO (note 45).

63 Andres Mäe, ‘Estonia’s Energy Security and the EU’, in Andres Kasekamp (ed.), The Estonian Foreign Policy Yearbook 2007. (Tallinn: The Estonian Foreign Policy Institute 2007) p.93.

64 Merle Maigre, ‘Energy Security Concerns of the Baltic States’, International Centre for Defence Studies, Tallinn 2010, p.2, <www.icds.ee/fileadmin/failid/Merle_Maigre-Energy_Security_Concerns_of_the_Baltic_States.pdf> accessed12 Feb. 2014.

65 Mäe (note 63) pp.103, 109.

66 Maigre (note 64) p.3.

67 Triinu Tarus, and Matthew Crandall, ’Is Russia a Threat to Estonian Energy Security?’ Baltic Journal of Political Science No. 2 (2012).

68 Marshall I. Goldman, Petrostate: Putin, Power, and the New Russia (Oxford: OUP2008) p.145.

69 Vladimir Socor, ‘Estonia will not allow the Nordstream Pipeline on its seabed’, The Eurasia Daily Monitor 4/179(2007), <www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=33032>, accessed 18 Dec. 2012.

70 Liis Kangsepp, and James Marson. ‘Estonia refuses Nordstream Survey Request’, Wall Street Journal, 6 Dec. 2012, <http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20121206-708848.html> accessed 18 Dec. 2012.

71 Bertil Nygren, The Rebuilding of Greater Russia, Putin’s Foreign Policy Towards the CIS Countries’, Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series (New York: Routledge 2008) p.97.

72 E. Berg, ‘The Baltic Gateway: A Corridor Leading Towards Three Different Directions?’, in Pami Aalto (ed.), EU, Russia and the Dialogue on Northern Energy Resources (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate 2007) p.151.

73 Indrek Kuus, Põlevkivitööstuse Comeback (Inseneeria Nov. 2012) p.22.

74 Ibid.

75 Ibid. p.18.

76 Ibid. p.20.

77 Ibid. p.22.

78 Brandon Loomis, ‘Utah Officials All Fired Up About Oil Shale After Estonia Visit’, Salt Lake Tribune, 7 Aug. 2011, accessed from <www.sltrib.com/sltrib/politics/52156050-90/oil-shale-county-company.html.csp>.

79 EWPA, ‘Strong Wind Brought a Good Year to Wind Energy’, Estonian Wind Power Association, 26 March. 2012, <www.tuuleenergia.ee/en/2012/03/strong-wind-brought-a-good-year-to-wind-energy/#more-8880> accessed 23 Nov. 2012.

80 EWPA, ‘Production of Wind Energy Grew Significantly in 2010’, Estonian Wind Power Association, 26 Jan. 2011, <www.tuuleenergia.ee/en/2011/01/production-of-wind-energy-grew-significally-in-2010/> accessed 23. Nov. 2012.

81 Ibid.

82 Ibid.

83 Reuters, ‘Finland-Estonia Power Cable at Least a Week Late’, Reuters, 30 Nov.2006, accessed from <http://uk.reuters.com/article/2006/11/30/energy-finland-estonia-idUKL3087437620061130>.

84 Kristopher Rikken, ‘Estonia, Latvia Sign Deal for Third Energy Cable’, ERR News, 2 March. 2012, <http://news.err.ee/economy/419bbe33-a964-4a71-91e7-ecea55347308>. accessed 18 Dec. 2012.

85 Maigre (note 64) p.7.

86 Oil Voice, ‘Nexans Wins Contract for Estlink 2 Power Submarine Link Between Estonia and Finland’, Oil Voice 26 Dec. 2010, accessed from <www.oilvoice.com/n/Nexans_Wins_Contract_for_EstLink_2_Power_Submarine_Link_Between_Finland_and_Estonia/780a97dd0.aspx>.

87 Ibid.

88 Maigre (note 64) p.7.

89 Mäe (note 63) p.109.

90 Been, ‘State Grants for the Renovations of Apartment Buildings in Estonia’, Been, 2011, accessed from <www.been-online.net/State-grants-for-the-renovation-of-apartment-buildings-in-Estonia.507.0.html>.

91 Kredex, ‘KredEx financed the renovation of 167 apartment buildings with the renovation loan’. 2 Feb.2012, <www.kredex.ee/kredex/news/18251/> , accessed 23 Nov. 2012.

92 Riigikinisvara, ‘The CO2 Project’, Riigi Kinnisvara 2012, <www.rkas.ee/co2-enon>, accessed 18 Dec. 012.

93 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘Estonia Won CO2 Quota Dispute Against European Commission in European Court of First Instance’, Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 23 Sept. 2009, <www.vm.ee/?q=en/node/8423>, accessed 18 Dec. 2012.

94 Lithuanian Tribune, ‘Baltic LNG in Latvia would be cheapest option – study’, Lithuanian Tribune, 11 Nov. 2010, <www.lithuaniatribune.com/2010/11/11/baltic-lng-in-latvia-would-be-cheapest-option-%E2%80%93-study/>.

95 Jeffery Jones and Maria Kiselyova, ‘Gazprom drops Baltic LNG, Petro-Can plant in limbo’, Reuters, 7 Feb. 011, <www.reuters.com/article/2008/02/07/gazprom-lng-idUSL0775920020080207>.

96 Ott Ummelas, Ott and Aaron Eglitis, ‘Latvia seeks to allay Estonian fears over LNG terminal plan’, Bloomberg News, 29 July 2011, accessed from <www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-07-29/latvia-seeks-to-allay-estonian-fears-over-lng-terminal-plan.html>.

97 Milda Seputyte, ‘Lithuania’s Planned LNG Terminal Could Supply Baltic Region’, Business Week, 23 May 2012, <www.businessweek.com/news/2012-05-23/lithuania-s-planned-lng-terminal-could-supply-baltic-region>, acccessed 12 June 2012.

98 Ibid.

99 Ott Ummelas, ‘Vopak to Produce Feasibility Study on Estonia LNG Terminal’, Bloomberg News, 2 May 2012, <www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-05-02/vopak-to-produce-feasibility-study-on-estonia-lng-terminal-1-.html>, accessed 12 June 2012.

100 Encharter.org, ‘Energy Charter: about the charter’, <www.encharter.org/index.php?id=7>.

101 GMF, ‘Estonian Prime Minister Calls for More Energy Cooperation Across Northern Europe’, The German Marshall Fund of the United States, 21 July 2011, accessed from <www.gmfus.org/events/event_view?event.id=1517>.

102 Office of the President, ‘President Ilves to the French Head of State: Estonia Wants a Strong and Active European Union’, President.ee. 2008, accessed from <www.president.ee/en/media/press-releases/1640-president-ilves-to-the-french-head-of-state-estonia-wants-a-strong-and-active-european-union/layout-visit.html>.

103 IRL, ‘Estonian MEP calls for external energy coordinator’, IRL.ee. 18 July 2007, accessed from <www.irl.ee/en/Media/News/402/estonian-mep-calls-for-external-energy-coordinator>.

104 Pami Aalto, ‘European Perspectives for Managing Dependence’, in Jeronim Perovic, Robert W. Ortung, and Andreas Wenger (eds.), Russian Energy Power and Foreign Relations: Implications for Conflict and Cooperation. (New York: Routledge 2009) p.172.

105 Gregory Feldman, ‘Culture, State and Security in Europe: The Case of Citizenship and Integration Policy in Estonia’, American Ethnologist 32/(2005) p.681.

106 Ibid.

107 Ibid. p.682.

108 Erik Männik, ‘Estonia’s Views on Security in 2010’, International Centre for Defence Studies, Tallinn, p.5, <www.icds.ee/fileadmin/failid/Erik_M%C3%A4nnik_-_Estonia%E2%80%99s_views_on_security_in_2010.pdf>.

109 Feldman (note 105) p.679.

110 Eva-Clarita Onken, ‘The Baltic States and Moscow’s 9 May Commemoration: Analysing Memory Politics in Europe’, Europe-Asia Studies, Jan. 07, p.33.

111 Rogers Brubaker, Nationalizing States Revisited: Projects and Processes of Nationalization in Post-Soviet States. (Berkeley: Univ.s Angeles 2011). p.27, <http://works.bepress.com/wrb/33/>.

112 Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale UP). p. 282.

113 Feldman (note 105) p.682.

114 Ibid.

115 Brubaker (note 111) p.272.

116 National Security Concept of Estonia (Defence Ministry 2010). p.20, accessed from <www.kmin.ee/files/kmin/img/files/National_Security_Concept_of_Estonia.pdf>.

117 Ibid.

118 Männik (note 108) p.9.

119 Priit Järve and Vadim Poleshchuk, EUDO Citizenship Observatory, Country Report: Estonia (European University Institute 2010) P, acessed from <eudo-citizenship.eu/docs/CountryReports/Estonia.pdf>.

120 Ibid. p.1.

121 Brubaker (note 111) p.I21.

122 Jüri Kruusvall, Raivo Vetik, and John W. Berry, ‘The Strategies of Inter-Ethnic Adaptation of Estonian Russians’, Studies of Transition States and Societies 1/1 (2009) p.4.

123 bid.

124 RaivoVetik, ‘Rahvuslik Julgeolek ja Ühiskonna Tunnustamiskultuur’ [National security and the culture of societal recognition] Acta Politica, Tallinna Ülikooli Kirjastus, No. 3 (2009) p.94.

125 MarkoLehti, Matti Jutila, and Markku Jokisipilä, ‘Never Ending Second World War: Public Performances of National Dignity and Drama of the Bronze Soldier’, Journal of Baltic Studies 39/4 (2008) p. 417.

126 P. Vihalemm, ‘Venekeelse elanikkonna infoväli ja mediakasutus’ [Russian speaker’s information space and media use], in Heidmets (ed.), Eesti inimarengu aruanne 2007 [Estonia’s human development report 2007] (Tallinn. Eesti koostöö kogu 2007) p.78.

127 Ibid. p.77.

128 M. Lauristin, ‘ Eesti ühiskonna valmisolek integratsiooniks’ [The readiness of Estonia’s society for integration]’, in Heidmets, Eesti inimarengu aruanne 2007 (note 126) p.83.

129 Vetik (note 124) p.90.

130 Kuusvall et al. (note 122) p.15.