Figures & data
Figure 1. Timeline of the main PD-1 inhibitors (alone or in combination with other drugs) tested in advanced renal cell carcinoma. Created with BioRender.com.
Figure 2. Monoclonal antibodies targeting PD-1 and CTLA-4 disrupt T-cell inhibitory responses, blocking PD-1 interaction with its ligands PD-L1/2 and CTLA-4 interaction with its ligand CD80/86. Notably, the bispecific antibody volrustomig targets both PD-1 and CTLA-4, in order to enhance the therapeutic benefit of this dual immune checkpoint blockade decreasing the risk of toxicity which is typically associated with anti-CTLA-4 agents. Furthermore, monoclonal antibodies targeting other immune checkpoints (such as TIGIT and LAG-3) aim to inhibit tumor-induced mechanisms that evade the host immune system, thereby reinvigorating the immune response against malignant cells. Created with BioRender.com. Abbreviations: RCC, renal cell carcinoma; PD-1, programmed death-1; PD-L1/2, programmed death ligand 1/2; CTLA-4, cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4; LAG-3, lymphocyte activation gene-3; TIGIT, T-cell immunoglobulin and ITIM domain; HLA, human leukocyte antigen; PVR, poliovirus receptor; Ab, antibody.
