Conceptualizing variety in platform capitalism: the dynamics of variegated capitalism in Thai digital marketplace platforms

Figures & data

Table 1. Key concepts relevant to variation of capitalism and directions for application to platform capitalism.

Concept	Applied to platform capitalism
Varieties of capitalism
Considering institutional forms within national settings such as long-run labour relations, firm inter-relations, firm-state linkages.	Varieties and impact on platforms, as well as platform users and service providers – within specific settings
Variegated capitalism
Multi-scalar variation: Consideration of multi-scalar relations and variation. This will include macro-regional and national-regional links that may shape firms and platforms.	Analysis of linkages relevant to platforms. This can have a broader orientation (e.g. norms of markets) or more sectoral conditions (e.g. e-commerce, transportation).
Variation and capitalism: Consideration of the historic specific forms of capitalism as an uneven and contradictory process (including patterns of accumulation, embeddedness and subsumption).	From comparative case studies towards analysis of experiments, tensions and fixes as platforms expand outside their ‘home’ context. Analysis of agency and a critical standpoint on the ‘all-encompassing power’ of capital.

Figure 1. Major periods of E-commerce development in Thailand.

Source: Author’s construction.

Figure 2. Annual Growth in online consumer spend: Jan 2017-2018.

Source: Statistica, Jan 2019.

Figure 3. Financial investments in the Internet economy in Southeast Asia (2011-2021).

Source: Adapted from Google & Temasek e-conomy data.

Table 2. Indicative table of e-commerce platforms by number of visitors in Thailand with details of ownership. International sites (not localized) are shown in italics, and regional-orientated marketplaces are shown in bold. Source: Adapted from SimilarWeb Q1/21, Semrush June 23, see note.² Authors additional research on firms, business models and ownership.

Name	Type	Business model	Area	Ownership details	Similar Web^2 (m)	Semrush^2 (m)
Shopee.th	B2C	Marketplace platform	General	SEA, Singapore (Tech firm in SEA) [from 2018] Tencent, China ∼20%	56.97	58.82
Lazada.th	B2C	Marketplace platform	General	Startup [2016] Alibaba takeover	36.85	102.57
Aliexpress	B2C	Marketplace platform	General	Chinese platform	-	5.53
Central online	B2C	e-retailer	Dpt. Store	Thai conglomerate	2.53	-
JD Central	B2C	Marketplace platform	General	2018 Joint Venture – JD, China & Central Group, Thailand	2.08	-
HomePro	B2C	e-retailer	Household	Thai household retailer	2.02	3.05
Kaidee	C2C	Marketplace platform	General	701Search, Singapore & Naspers, SA (Platform investors) [2020] EMPG, Dubai (Platform investor in Asia)	-	2.98
Ebay	C2C	Auction platform	General	US platform	2.21	-
Advice	B2C	e-retailer	IT	Thai IT retailer	2.01	-
Powerbuy	B2C	e-retailer	Electronics	Thai electronics retailer	1.93	-
JIB	B2C	e-retailer	IT	Thai IT retailer	1.56	-
Banana Store		e-retailer	IT	Thai IT retailer	1.23	-
Etsy	B2C	Marketplace platform	Arts	US platform	-	1.21

Table 3. Summary of key aspects of variety linked to Thai platform markets Authors elaboration.

Selected domains of variety	Multi-scalar processes shaping variety
Enterprises	Regional: Orientations of platform firms in Thailand. National: Conglomerate forms of enterprise in Thailand.
State	Regional: Regional institutions and rules National, sectoral: Thai ‘productive’ orientation
Retail	Sectoral, sub-national: Specific sectoral relations and norms National: Nature of informal retail and institutions