Russia’s Arctic icebreaking capability: an assessment

ABSTRACT

This paper explores the Russian icebreaker fleet capabilities, problems, and perspectives. It also analyses Russian civilian and military icebreakers, and their dual-use capabilities. The paper responds to a question grounded in Russia's Arctic policy: How critical is icebreaking capability to Russia’s Arctic strategy? Based on the findings, the paper concludes that the influences of climate change and Russia’s foreign and external security policy affect the development of its icebreaker fleet in the Arctic. In this respect, temperatures of the ice melting in the Arctic and delays in building new icebreakers, because of access to the technology caused by the sanctions, are stressed. On the other hand, Russia’s confrontation with the West following the invasion of Ukraine and the sanctions over it, increases the allocation of government finance to support local shipbuilding companies. Moreover, the paper argues that Russia’s economic difficulties and shipbuilding delays should enhance the dual-use capabilities of the Russian icebreakers in the coming years.

KEYWORDS:

• Icebreakers
• Arctic
• Russia's Arctic strategy
• dual -use capabilities
• navy
• civilian icebreakers

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Stepan O. Makarov, Svetlana V. Dolgova and Nikita A. Kuznetsov, Ledokol “Yermak” (Moscow: Paulsen, 2010), http://militera.lib.ru/bio/jzl_makarov/08.html.

2 Ibid.

3 Dmitry Gorchakov, ‘Ledokol'nyy flot Rossii – ot ugol'nogo “Yermaka” do atomnogo “Lenina”’, Habr, September 9, 2021, https://habr.com/ru/post/576550/.

4 Ivan Kukushkin, ‘“Iosif Stalin”/ “Sibir”’, lineynyy ledokol’, Polyarnaya Pochta, May 21, 2008, http://www.polarpost.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?f=4&t=560.

5 Dmitry Gorchakov, ‘Ledokol'nyy flot Rossii’.

6 Donald L. Canney, ‘Icebreakers and the U.S. Coast Guard’, US Department of Defence, 1999, 6, https://media.defence.gov/2019/Jul/25/2002162249/-1/-1/0/ICEBREAKERS_D.%20CANNEY_1999.PDF.

7 Joint Committee Print, Soviet Economic Prospects for the Seventies a Compendium of Papers Submitted to the Joint Economic Committee Congress of the United States (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), 733.

8 Vladislav Bukin, ‘Sudostroyeniye v Finlyandii. Chast' 1: Verf' «Arctech Helsinki Shipyard» – 90 let sotrudnichestva s SSSR i Rossiyey’, KORABEL.RU, May 24, 2015, https://www.korabel.ru/news/comments/sudostroenie_v_finlyandii_chast_1_verf_arctech_helsinki_shipyard_-_90_let_sotrudnichestva_s_sssr_i_rossiey.html.

9 D.F. Skripnuk, I.O. Liyushchenko, S.V. Kulik and M.M. Stepanova, ‘Analysis of the Current State of the Northern Sea Route and the Potential Development of the Icebreaker Fleet’ (paper presented at 5th international conference ‘Arctic: History and Modernity’, Saint-Petersburg, Russia, 18–19 March 2020), 3, doi:10.1088/1755-1315/539/1/012129, https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/539/1/012129/meta.

10 Atomflot, ‘Sud'ba byt' pervym’, 2022, http://www.rosatomflot.ru/atomnyy-ledokol-lenin/istoriya-1/.

11 Skripnuk et al., ‘Analysis of the Current State of the Northern Sea Route’, 3.

12 The Federal State Unitary Enterprise Atomflot is designed to ensure the operation and technological maintenance of nuclear-powered icebreakers and vessels of the auxiliary fleet. It is a part of the Rosatom.

13 More information on operational nuclear-powered icebreakers can be found in Table 1.

14 ROSATOM, ‘Razvitiye Severnogo morskogo puti’, 2023, https://rosatom.ru/production/fleet/.

15 ROSATOM, ‘Predstaviteli Rosatoma i yego predpriyatiy prinyali uchastiye v XI Mezhdunarodnom forume “Arktika: nastoyashcheye i budushcheye”’, December 3, 2021, https://rosatom.ru/journalist/news/predstaviteli-rosatoma-i-ego-predpriyatiy-prinyali-uchastie-v-xi-mezhdunarodnom-forume-arktika-nasto/.

16 Atomflot, ‘Universal'nyye atomnyye ledokoly proyekta 22220’, 2022, http://www.rosatomflot.ru/flot/universalnyy-atomnyy-ledokol-proekta-22220/.

17 RIA Novosti, ‘Novyy atomnyy ledokol “Sibir'” peredali v ekspluatatsiyu “Rosatomu”’, December 24, 2021, https://ria.ru/20211224/ledokol-1765368763.html.

18 Atomflot, ‘Universal'nyy atomnyy ledokol “Sibir'” voshel v sostav flota FGUP “Atomflot”’, December 25, 2021, https://www.rosatom.ru/journalist/news/universalnyy-atomnyy-ledokol-sibir-voshel-v-sostav-flota-fgup-atomflot/.

19 ROSATOM, ‘Keel of Fifth Project 22220 Icebreaker Laid in St. Petersburg’, December 18, 2020, https://rosatom.ru/en/press-centre/news/keel-of-fifth-project-22220-icebreaker-laid-in-st-petersburg/.

20 I.O. Dumanskaya, ‘Dependence of the Modern Icebreaker Fleet from Ice Conditions on the Russian Seas’, Russian Arctic, no. 5 (2019): 11–22, 14.

21 Atle Staalesen, ‘New Super-Powerful Icebreaker Might Work Exclusively for Putin's Oil Tycoon Igor Sechin’, The Barents Observer, November 22, 2022, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/industry-and-energy/2022/11/new-super-powerful-icebreaker-might-work-exclusively-rosnefts-arctic.

22 ROSATOM, ‘The Keel has been Laid Down for the Nuclear Icebreaker Rossija in the Far East’, July 7, 2022, https://rosatom.ru/en/press-centre/news/the-keel-has-been-laid-down-for-the-nuclear-icebreaker-rossija-in-the-far-east/.

23 ROSATOM, ‘V Rosatome razrabotana elementnaya baza yadernogo topliva dlya atomnogo ledokola proyekta 10510 “Lider”’, January 20, 2020, https://rosatom.ru/journalist/news/v-rosatome-razrabotana-elementnaya-baza-yadernogo-topliva-dlya-atomnogo-ledokola-proekta-10510-lider/.

24 Oleg Bukharin, ‘Russia's Nuclear Icebreaker Fleet’, Science & Global Security 14, no. 1 (2006): 25–31, 26.

25 More information on operational the Russian diesel-electric icebreakers can be found in Table 2.

26 Rosmorport was founded by the Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Property Relations of the Russian Federation, and its main mission is to provide safe navigation in the water area and on the ways to seaports.

27 Rosmorport, ‘Ledokol'nyye uslugi’, 2023, https://www.rosmorport.ru/services/icebreakerservices/.

28 Skripnuk et al., ‘Analysis of the Current State of the Northern Sea Route’, 3.

29 Rosmorport, ‘Novosti predpriyatiya’, November 3, 2020, https://www.rosmorport.ru/news/company/36057/.

30 LORP – Lenskoye ob’yedinennoye rechnoye parokhodstvo, ‘O predpriyatii’, 2023, http://lorp.ru/company/obshchaya-informatsiya.

31 Anton Murav'yev, ‘“NORNIKEL”: svoy flot v Arktike’, Adventure 1, no. 4 (2017): 14, https://www.interros.ru/upload/iblock/f3a/f3abbdd4eb8fab02bd7b94787790a619.pdf.

32 More information on operational corporate icebreakers can be found in Table 2.

33 Ye Alifirova, ‘Slazhennyy tandem. Ledokoly Andrey Vil'kitskiy i Aleksandr Sannikov nachali kruglogodichnoye soprovozhdeniye otgruzki nefti s arkticheskikh proyektov Gazprom nefti’, Neftegaz.ru, January 24, 2019, https://neftegaz.ru/news/transport-and-storage/195282-slazhennyy-tandem-ledokoly-andrey-vilkitskiy-i-aleksandr-sannikov-nachali-kruglogodichnoe-soprovozhd/.

34 NANS – Natsional'naya Assotsiatsiya neftegazovogo servisa, ‘Vysokotekhnologichnyy ledokol «Aleksandr Sannikov» voshel v sostav rossiyskogo arkticheskogo flota’, June 29, 2018, https://nangs.org/news/technologies/vysokotekhnologichnyj-ledokol-aleksandr-sannikov-voshel-v-sostav-rossijskogo-arkticheskogo-flota.

35 Gazprom, ‘Gazpromneft' – usilila sobstvennyy arkticheskiy flot vtorym ledokolom Andrey Vil'kitskiy’, December 20, 2018, https://www.gazprom-neft.ru/press-center/news/gazprom-neft-usilila-sobstvennyy-arkticheskiy-flot-vtorym-ledokolom-andrey-vilkitskiy/.

36 Mike Schuler, ‘Yamal LNG’s 15-Vessel Fleet of Icebreaking LNG Tankers Now Operational’, December 11, 2019, https://gcaptain.com/yamal-lngs-15-vessel-fleet-of-icebreaking-lng-tankers-now-operational/.

37 Skripnuk et al., ‘Analysis of the Current State of the Northern Sea Route’, 3.

38 Nornickel is the leader in Russia’s metals and mining industry, as well as the largest palladium and high-grade nickel producer and one of the largest producers of platinum and copper. The company also produces cobalt, rhodium, silver, gold, iridium, ruthenium, selenium, tellurium, and sulfur. For more information see: Nornickel, ‘Company Profile’, https://nornickel.com/company/profile/.

39 Anastasiya Vedeneyeva and Polina Smertina, ‘“Nornikel'” vlozhitsya v ledokoly’, Kommersant, July 23, 2021, https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4917011.

40 Ibid.

41 Rosneft, ‘DTSSS, “Rosatom” i “Noril'skiy nikel'” dogovorilis' o sotrudnichestve v ramkakh stroitel'stva dvukhtoplivnogo ledokola’, September 3, 2021, https://www.rosneft.ru/press/releases/item/207665/.

42 Both of those companies are owned by Rosneft. Vedomosti, ‘DTSSS, “Rosatom” i “Noril'skiy nikel'” dogovorilis' o sotrudnichestve v ramkakh stroitel'stva dvukhtoplivnogo ledokola’, September 3, 2021, https://www.vedomosti.ru/press_releases/2021/09/03/dtsss-rosatom-i-norilskii-nikel-dogovorilis-o-sotrudnichestve-v-ramkah-stroitelstva-dvuhtoplivnogo-ledokola.

43 ROSATOM, ‘Rosatom, PAO “Nornikel'” i AO “DTSSS” podpisali soglasheniye o sovmestnom proyektirovanii i stroitel'stve SPG-ledokola’, September 3, 2021, https://rosatom.ru/journalist/news/rosatom-pao-nornikel-i-ao-dtsss-podpisali-soglashenie-o-sovmestnom-proektirovanii-i-stroitelstve-spg/.

44 TASS, ‘“Nornikel'” vlozhit 90 mlrd rubley do 2030 goda v realizatsiyu transportnykh proyektov’, December 20, 2021, https://tass.ru/ekonomika/13251083.

45 LUKOIL, Press Release, 2009, https://lukoil.ru/PressCenter/Pressreleases/Pressrelease?rid=52581.

46 NANS – Natsional'naya Assotsiatsiya neftegazovogo servisa, ‘Singapur postroil dlya “LUKOYL” a tri mini-ledokola’, September 11, 2015, https://nangs.org/news/industry/singapur-postroil-dlya-lukojla-tri-mini-ledokola-2002.

47 More information on operational icebreakers of the Russian Navy can be found in Table 2.

48 Oleg Kuleshov, ‘Boyevyye ledokoly Rossii: proshloye, nastoyashcheye i budushcheye’, Korabel.ru, December 9, 2019, https://www.korabel.ru/news/comments/voennye_ledokoly_rossii_proshloe_nastoyaschee_i_buduschee.htmlhttps://www.korabel.ru/news/comments/voennye_ledokoly_rossii_proshloe_nastoyaschee_i_buduschee.html.

49 Ibid.

50 Ibid.

51 Ibid.

52 Dimitry Litovkin, ‘Arkticheskiy “Bastion”: Rossiya zakryla Sevmorput’, TASS, December 2, 2019, https://tass.ru/opinions/7244521.

53 Admiralteyskiye verfi, ‘Dizel'-elektricheskiy ledokol proyekta 21180 “Il'ya Muromets”’, http://admship.ru/production/surface/dizel-elektricheskiy-ledokol-proekta-21180-ilya-muromets-/.

54 TASS, ‘Ispytaniya korablya ledovogo klassa “Ivan Papanin” nachnutsya v kontse 2022 goda’, June 23, 2021, https://tass.ru/armiya-i-opk/11723061.

55 Litovkin, ‘Arkticheskiy “Bastion”’.

56 PortNews, ‘Ledokol “Yevpatiy Kolovrat” vyveden iz ellinga’, November 22, 2020, https://portnews.ru/news/305101/.

57 Dmitry Boltenkov and Anton Lavrov, ‘Oborona po-flotski: k 2028 godu Sever poluchit moshchnuyu ledokol'nuyu gruppirovku – Arkticheskiye morskiye sily popolnyatsya i mnogofunktsional'nymi sudami obespecheniya’, Izvestiya, August 9, 2020, https://iz.ru/1045486/dmitrii-boltenkov-anton-lavrov/oborona-po-flotski-k-2028-godu-sever-poluchit-moshchnuiu-ledokolnuiu-gruppirovku.

58 PortNews, ‘Baltiyskiy flot obespechivayet ZKHI ledokola proyekta 21180M “Yevpatiy Kolovrat” v Baltiyskom more’, December 15, 2022, https://portnews.ru/news/340218/.

59 Pavel Kutarenko, ‘Arkticheskaya “Purga”: v Vyborge zalozhili pogranichnyy storozhevoy korabl' ledovogo klassa’, TV Zvezda, July 25, 2020, https://tvzvezda.ru/news/2020725177-Ps8VZ.html.

60 Yana Voytsekhovskaya, ‘VSZ zaymetsya voyennym zakazom’, Kommersant, January 27, 2020, https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4233334.

61 Litovkin, ‘Arkticheskiy “Bastion”’.

62 The SS-N-26 “Strobile” (P-800 Oniks)/Yakhont/Yakhont-M are Russian anti-ship cruise missiles developed by NPO Mashinostroyenia. For more information see: The Missile Threat, ‘P-800 Oniks/Yakhont/Bastion (SS-N-26 Strobile)’, https://missilethreat.csis.org/missile/ss-n-26/. Litovkin, ‘Arkticheskiy “Bastion”’.

63 Dmitry Safonov, ‘Atomnyy ledokol'nyy flot Rossii uvelichat v neskol'ko raz’, Nezavisimoe Voennoe Obozrenie, July 29, 2021, https://nvo.ng.ru/realty/2021-07-29/3_1151_fleet.html.

64 Safonov, ‘Atomnyy ledokol'nyy flot Rossii uvelichat v neskol'ko raz’.

65 Nurlan Aliyev, ‘The Twitter Thread on Russia’s Military Exercises and Activities in the Arctic’, Twitter.com (2021–2023), https://twitter.com/anurlan/status/1436083308660772867?s=20.

66 Safonov, ‘Atomnyy ledokol'nyy flot Rossii uvelichat v neskol'ko raz’.

67 Ibid.

68 Alexander Sergunin and Gunhild Hoogensen Gjørv, ‘The Politics of Russian Arctic Shipping: Evolving Security and Geopolitical Factors’, The Polar Journal 10, no.2 (2020): 251–72, 253.

69 V.V. Ruksha, A.A. Smirnov, S.A. Golovinskiy, L.P. Rodionova, A.V. Ivanov, P.A. Nikolayev and V.I. Peresypkin, ‘Ekonomicheskoye razvitiye arkticheskogo regiona i atomnyy ledokol'nyy flot Rossii’, Arktika: ekologiya i ekonomika 1, no. 5 (2012): 16–25, 18, http://www.ibrae.ac.ru/pubtext/22/.

70 Ibid., 22.

71 Ibid., 20.

72 Aleksey Kozachenko, Bogdan Stepovoy, and Elnar Baynazarov, ‘Kholodnaya volna: inostrantsam sozdali pravila prokhoda Sevmorputi’, Izvestiya, March 6, 2019, https://iz.ru/852943/aleksei-kozachenko-bogdan-stepovoi-elnar-bainazarov/kholodnaia-volna-inostrantcam-sozdali-pravila-prokhoda-sevmorputi.

73 Glavsevmorput, ‘Zayavleniye o vydache razresheniya na plavaniye sudna v akvatorii severnogo morskogo puti mozhno podat' posredstvom portala gosuslug’, September 1, 2023, https://nsr.rosatom.ru/o-kompanii/novosti/?ELEMENT_ID=172585.

74 Atle Staalesen, ‘Hundreds of Russian Arctic Troops Believed to be Involved in War Crimes in Ukraine’, The Barents Observer, March 2, 2022, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/security/2022/03/hundreds-russian-arctic-troops-believed-be-involved-war-crimes-ukraine; See also, Hilde-Gunn Bye, ‘Chief of Defence to HNN: Russian Military Activity is Unusually Low in the High North’, High North News, August 18, 2022, https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/chief-defence-hnn-russian-military-activity-unusually-low-high-north.

75 Staalesen, ‘Hundreds of Russian Arctic Troops’.

76 Nilsen Thomas, ‘Land Forces at Kola Reduced to One-Fifth, Norwegian Intelligence Says’, The Barents Observer, February 13, 2023, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/security/2023/02/four-fifths-kola-land-forces-wiped-out.

77 The Russian Government, ‘Rossiya prekrashchayet deystviye memorandumov ob uchrezhdenii informatsionnykh byuro Severnogo Soveta Ministrov v Sankt-Peterburge i Kaliningrade, Rasporyazheniye ot 12 iyulya 2022 goda №1902-r’, July 12, 2022, http://government.ru/news/46008/.

78 TASS, ‘Vitse-prezidenta rossiysko-finskoy kompanii arestovali po podozreniyu v gosizmene’, July 14, 2022, https://tass.ru/obschestvo/15211909.

79 Wärtsilä, ‘Wärtsilä Completes Russian Market Exit’, July 21, 2022, https://news.cision.com/wartsila-corporation/r/wartsila-completes-russian-market-exit,c3600801.

80 Novyi Prospekt, ‘Proizvoditel' morskikh energoustanovok Wärtsilä ukhodit s rossiyskogo rynka’, July 21, 2022, https://newprospect.ru/news/aktualno-segodnya/proizvoditel-morskikh-energoustanovok-w-rtsil-ukhodit-s-rossiyskogo-rynka/.

81 MixNews, ‘Ledokolostroyeniye v Rossii dalo treshchinu: finny zatopili programmu stroitel'stva ledokol'nogo flota RF’, YouToube.com, July 26, 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6sFTXNitxk.

82 The Russian Government, ‘Mikhail Mishustin utverdil plan razvitiya Severnogo morskogo puti do 2035 goda’, August 4, 2022, http://government.ru/news/46171/.

83 Tat'yana Dyatel and Dmitriy Kozlov, ‘“Rossiya” ne sdayetsya’, Kommersant, March 28, 2023, https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5900679.

84 Polina Smertina and Dmitry Kozlov, ‘Ledokoly proshchayutsya s SPG’, Kommersant, July 22, 2022, https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5471396.

85 CJSC Transmashholding is the largest manufacturer of locomotives, rail equipment and engineering company in Russia.

86 Reuters, ‘As Arctic Shipping Grows, Russia Prepares for First LNG-Fuelled Icebreaker’, September 3, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/russia-arctic-icebreaker-nornickel/as-arctic-shipping-grows-russia-prepares-for-first-lng-fuelled-icebreaker-idUSKBN2FZ123.

87 Anastasia Larina, ‘Putin poruchil peredat' kontrol' nad Severnym morskim putem “Rosatomu”’, Kommersant, May 23, 2022, https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5366983.

88 Ruksha et al., ‘Ekonomicheskoye razvitiye arkticheskogo regiona i atomnyy ledokol'nyy flot Rossii’, 18.

89 The Kremlin, ‘Morskaya doktrina Rossiyskoy Federatsii – Utverzhdena Morskaya doktrina Rossiyskoy Federatsii’, July 31, 2022, http://kremlin.ru/acts/news/69084.

90 Ibid., 49–50.

91 Maritime Doctrine of the Russian Federation, translated by Anna Davis, Russia Maritime Studies Institute of the United States, Naval War College (2015), 2.

92 The Kremlin, ‘Morskaya doktrina Rossiyskoy Federatsii’.

93 Sergunin and Gjørv, ‘The Politics of Russian Arctic Shipping’, 253–4.

94 Arild Moe and Lawson Brigham, ‘Organization and Management Challenges of Russia's Icebreaker Fleet’, Geographical Review 107, no. 1 (2017): 48–68, 53.

95 Anastasia Vedeneyeva, ‘Ledokoly s Mramornogo morya’, Kommersant, September 8, 2021, https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/4936095.

96 Svetlana Burmistrova, ‘“Rosatom” zakazhet yeshche shest' ledokolov dlya perevozok gruzov po Sevmorputi’, RBK, July 23, 2021, https://www.rbc.ru/business/23/07/2021/60fab0c49a7947c410dcff87.

97 Ibid.

98 ROSATOM, ‘Predstaviteli Rosatoma i yego predpriyatiy prinyali uchastiye v XI Mezhdunarodnom forume “Arktika: nastoyashcheye i budushcheye”’, December 3, 2021, https://rosatom.ru/journalist/news/predstaviteli-rosatoma-i-ego-predpriyatiy-prinyali-uchastie-v-xi-mezhdunarodnom-forume-arktika-nasto/.

99 Pravo.gov.ru, ‘O Strategii razvitiya Arkticheskoy zony Rossiyskoy Federatsii i obespecheniya natsional'noy bezopasnosti na period do 2035 goda_kaz Prezidenta Rossiyskoy Federatsii ot 26.10.2020 № 645’, October 26, 2020, 32, http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?docbody=&firstDoc=1&lastDoc=1&nd=102888023.

100 Ibid., 42.

101 Burmistrova, ‘“Rosatom” zakazhet yeshche shest' ledokolov dlya perevozok gruzov po Sevmorputi.

102 ROSATOM, ‘Ustanovlen novyy rekord gruzoperevozok po Sevmorputi’, December 17, 2021, https://rosatom.ru/journalist/news/ustanovlen-novyy-rekord-gruzoperevozok-po-sevmorputi/.

103 Skripnuk et al., ‘Analysis of the Current State of the Northern Sea Route’, 2.

104 ROSATOM, ‘Ob"yem perevezennykh gruzov po Severnomu morskomu puti v 2022 godu sostavil 34,117 mln tonn’, January 13, 2023, https://www.rosatom.ru/journalist/news/obem-perevezennykh-gruzov-po-severnomu-morskomu-puti-v-2022-godu-sostavil-34-034-mln-tonn/.

105 PortNews, ‘Inostrannyy tranzit po SMP udalos' kompensirovat' perevozkoy rossiyskikh gruzov v 2022 godu – Rosatom’, February 16, 2023, https://portnews.ru/news/343075/.

106 LOGIRUS, ‘Dlya Sevmorputi stroyat miniflot iz 13 ledokolov’, December 1, 2021, https://logirus.ru/news/transport/dlya_sevmorputi_stroyat_miniflot_iz_13_ledokolov.html.

107 LOGIRUS, ‘Dlya Sevmorputi stroyat miniflot iz 13 ledokolov’.

108 The Kremlin, ‘Soveshchaniye s chlenami Pravitel'stva’, May 17, 2023, http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/71146.

109 Tat'yana Vil'de, ‘Vladimir Gutenev: obsuzhdayetsya sozdaniye otdel'noy gosprogrammy razvitiya dvigatelestroyeniya’, PortNews, May 16, 2023, https://portnews.ru/comments/3353/.

110 Vladimir Stanulevich, ‘“Atomflot”: Severnyy Ledovityy okean ne osvoboditsya oto l'da do 2050 goda’, Regnum, November 26, 2021, https://regnum.ru/news/economy/3433963.html.

111 Maria-Vittoria Guarino, Louise C. Sime, David Schröeder, Irene Malmierca-Vallet, Erica Rosenblum, Mark Ringer, Jeff Ridley, Danny Feltham, Cecilia Bitz, Eric J. Steig, Eric Wolff, Julienne Stroeve and Alistair Sellar, ‘Sea-Ice-Free Arctic during the Last Interglacial Supports Fast Future Loss’, Nature Climate Change 10 (2020): 928–32, https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-0865-2.

112 The Northern Sea Route Administration, ‘Rules of Navigation in the Water Area of the Northern Sea Route’, 2020, http://www.nsra.ru/en/ofitsialnaya_informatsiya/pravila_plavaniya.html.

113 I.O. Dumanskaya, ‘Dependence of the Modern Icebreaker Fleet from Ice Conditions on the Russian Seas’, 15.

114 Ibid., 21.

115 INTERFAX, ‘“Rosatom” predlozhil izmenit' pravila navigatsii po Sevmorputi iz-za noyabr'skogo krizisa’, December 22, 2021, https://www.interfax.ru/russia/811826.

116 The Northern Sea Route Administration, ‘Object of Activity and Functions of NSRA’, 2023, http://www.nsra.ru/en/glavnaya/celi_funktsii.html.

117 Ibid.

118 Moe and Brigham, ‘Organization and Management Challenges’, 51.

119 Ibid., p. 51.

120 The Northern Sea Route Administration, ‘Rules of Navigation in the Water Area’.

121 Ibid., 1–2.

122 Ibid., 11.

123 The Russian Government, ‘Pravitel'stvo usovershenstvuyet sistemu upravleniya sudokhodstvom v akvatorii Severnogo morskogo puti. Postanovleniye ot 23 iyulya 2022 goda №1318, rasporyazheniye ot 23 iyulya 2022 goda №2019-r’, July 23, 2022, http://government.ru/news/46152/.

124 Skripnuk et al., ‘Analysis of the Current State of the Northern Sea Route’, 5.

125 Vitaliy Chernov, ‘Russia’s Infrastructure Phantoms – 2021’, Port News, December 29, 2021, https://en.portnews.ru/comments/3104/.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Nurlan Aliyev

Nurlan Aliyev is a lecturer in the University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw. He is the author of Reassessing Russia's Security Policy.