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Abstract
This paper analyses the response by the Australian political–military establishment to climate change through the lens of securitization theory. The research used mixed content analysis techniques to systematically examine more than 1500 speech-acts, policies and doctrinal articles between 2003 and 2013. It argues that the Australian Defence Force (ADF) was not a climate securitizing actor and that its response to climate change was mediated by the political partisanship surrounding broader national policy debates on climate change. The politicization of climate change made it increasingly difficult for the ADF to publicly adopt meaningful climate policies. It subsequently crafted a strategy that minimized any investment (resource or reputational) lest a change of government rendered them invalid or it drew unwanted criticism. At the very heart of this finding exists the challenge of an avowedly apolitical institution responding to what emerged in the Australian context as a politically partisan security issue. The more serious indictment concerned how national security policy (in the context of climate change as a security issue) became hostage to the politics of climate change.
Notes on contributor
Michael Thomas is an inter-disciplinary PhD candidate with UNSW researching the securitization of climate change. He is a serving officer in the Australian Army and in 2014 was awarded a science scholarship with the Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists.
Notes
1 This is particularly true in Asia and the Pacific region, but less so of European and US militaries. Even for the latter, most remain at higher levels of analysis, including national security, rather than military institutions per se. See, for example, Michael Brzoska, ‘Climate Change as a Driver of Security Policy’, in Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability, ed. Jurgen Scheffran et al. (New York, Springer, 2012), 165–83. Climate security scholars Hans Gunter Brauch and Jurgen Scheffran have also written extensively on the matter.
2 Alix Pearce, ‘The New Security Climate: Rethinking Australian Defence Policy in an Age of Climate Change' (honour's thesis, University of Sydney, 2013).
3 Group Captain Robert Lawson, ‘Climate Change in the Asia-Pacific Region: Security Implications for Australia’, Shedden Papers (Canberra: Centre for Defence and Strategic Studies Australian Defence College, 2007); Michael Thomas, ‘Climate Change and the ADF’, Journal of the Australian Profession of Arms, no. 185 (2011); Michael Thomas, ‘The Securitisation of Climate Change: A Military Perspective’, Journal of the Australian Profession of Arms, no. 192 (2013).
4 Alan Dupont and Graeme Pearman, ‘Heating up the Planet: Climate Change and Security’, Lowy Institute Paper 12 (Sydney: Lowy Institute for International Policy, 2006); Anthony Bergin and Jacob Townsend, ‘A Change in Climate for the Australian Defence Force', special report, issue 7 (Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2007); Anthony Press, Anthony Bergin, and Eliza Garnsey, ‘Heavy Weather: Climate and the Australian Defence Force’, special report, no. 49 (Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2013).
5 Peter Christoff and Robyn Eckersley, ‘No Island Is an Island: Security in a Four Degree World’, in Four Degrees of Global Warming: Australia in a Hot World, ed. Peter Christoff (New York: Routledge, 2014), 190–204.
6 Department of Defence, Defence Environmental Strategic Plan 2010–2014 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2010).
7 Press et al., ‘Heavy Weather’.
8 Matt McDonald, ‘The Failed Securitization of Climate Change in Australia’, Australian Journal of Political Science 47, no. 4 (2012): 579–92.
9 See, for example: US Navy, ‘Task Force Climate Change: U.S. Navy Climate Change Roadmap’ (2010), http://www.navy.mil/navydata/documents/CCR.pdf (accessed October 3, 2013), Washington DC; US Department of Defense, ‘Department of Defense Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan Fy 2012 (2012)’, http://www.denix.osd.mil/sustainability/upload/DoD-Strategic-Sustainability-Performance-Plan-FY-2012.pdf (accessed October 3, 2013), Washington DC; US Army Corps of Engineers, ‘Climate Change Adaptation Plan’ (2014), http://www.usace.army.mil/Portals/2/docs/Sustainability/Performance_Plans/2014_USACE_Climate_Change_Adaptation_Plan.pdf (accessed November 5, 2014), Washington DC; UK Ministry of Defence, MOD Climate Change Strategy 2010 (Ministry of Defence UK, 2011). The MOD Climate Change Strategy is today included as part of its Sustainability Development Strategy: A Sub-Strategy of the Strategy for Defence 2011– 2030.
10 Barry Buzan, Ole Waever, and Jaap de-Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (London: Lynne Rienner, 1998), 24.
11 Angela Oels, ‘From “Securitization” of Climate Change to “Climatization” of the Security Field’, in Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability, Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace, ed. Jurgen Scheffran et al. (London: Springer, 2012), 201.
12 Buzan et al., Security: A New Framework for Analysis, 29.
13 Didier Bigo, ‘Globalized (In)security: The Field and the Banopticon’, in Terror, Insecurity and Liberty: Illiberal Practices of Liberal Regimes after 9/11, ed. Didier Bigo and Anastassia Tsoukala (London: Routledge, 2008), 10–48.
14 Oels, ‘From “Securitization” of Climate Change to “Climatization” of the Security Field', 197.
15 Bigo, ‘Globalized (in)security: The Field and the Banopticon’.
16 For the general method undertaken in this process, see Harvey Bernard and Gery W. Ryan, Analyzing Qualitative Data: Systematic Aproaches (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), 287–310.
17 Kevin M. Rudd, ‘The First National Security Statement to the Australian Parliament by the Prime Minister of Australia the Hon. Kevin Rudd MP’ (2008), http://www.royalcommission.vic.gov.au/getdoc/596cc5ff-8a33-47eb-8d4a-9205131ebdd0/TEN.004.002.0437.pdf (accessed June 8, 2013).
18 Official Committee Hansard of The Commonwealth of Australia Senate, ‘Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade: Estimates' (2007), http://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/Estimates/Live/commttee/S10269.ashx (accessed April 12, 2013), 102.
19 Buzan et al., Security: A New Framework for Analysis, 52.
20 John W. Howard, ‘Address at the Liberal Party of Australia (Queensland Division) Annual State Convention’ (2006), http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=22559 (accessed February 5, 2014).
21 John W. Howard, ‘Address at the Business Council of Australia Annual Dinner Sofitel Wentworth, Sydney’ (2006), http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=22579 (accessed February 7, 2014).
22 John W. Howard, ‘Address to the National Press Club Great Hall, Parliament House’ (2007), http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=15149 (accessed February 6, 2014).
23 Howard, ‘Address at the Business Council of Australia Annual Dinner Sofitel Wentworth, Sydney’.
24 John W. Howard, ‘Weekly Radio Message - Climate Change’ (2007), http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=15292 (accessed February 10, 2014).
25 Brendan Nelson, ‘Opening Address to D+I Conference Adelaide’(2007), http://www.defence.gov.au/minister/51tpl.cfm?CurrentId=7038 (accessed March 3, 2013).
26 John W. Howard, ‘National Plan for Water Security’ (2007), http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=15193 (accessed February 7, 2014).
27 John W. Howard, ‘Nuclear Power Station Plebiscites' (2007), http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=15491 (accessed February 14, 2014).
28 John W. Howard, ‘Address to the Australia/UK Leadership Forum Parliament House, Canberra’ (2006), http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=22190 (accessed February 5, 2014).
29 Howard, ‘Address at the Liberal Party of Australia (Queensland Division) Annual State Convention’.
30 Natalie Alexander, ‘Climate Change on Radar' (2011), http://www.defence.gov.au/defencemagazine/editions/2011_03/mag.pdf#nameddest=environ (accessed March 5, 2014).
31 Official Committee Hansard of The Commonwealth of Australia Senate, ‘Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade: Supplementary Budget Estimates' (2006), http://www.aph.gov.au/~/media/Estimates/Live/commttee/S9780.ashx (accessed February 19, 2014), 70.
32 Official Committee Hansard of the Commonwealth of Australia Senate, ‘Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade: Estimates' (2007).
33 Department of Defence, ‘Defence Personnel Environment Scan 2025’, in Defence Personnel Environment Scan 2025 (Canberra: Directorate of Strategic Personnel Planning & Research, 2006).
34 Ibid., i.
35 Official Committee Hansard of the Commonwealth of Australia Senate, ‘Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade: Estimates' (2007), 102.
36 Ibid.
37 Peter Halden, The Geopolitics of Climate Change: Changes to the International System (Stockholm: Swedish Defence Research Agency, 2007), 36; Betsy Hartmann, ‘Lines in the Shifting Sand: The Strategic Politics of Climate Change, Human Security and National Defense' (paper presented at Rethinking Security in a Changing Climate GECHS Synthesis Conference University of Oslo, Norway, June 22–24, 2009).
38 Alexander, ‘Climate Change on Radar’.
39 See IPCC, Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), 2007, http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar4/ (accessed November 19, 2014; Nicholas Stern, The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, Cabinet Office – HM Treasury, 2006, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/sternreview_index.htm (accessed November 19, 2014); and Ross Garnaut, The Garnaut Climate Change Review: Final Report (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
40 Bergin and Townsend, ‘A Change in Climate for the Australian Defence Force’; Jon Barnett, ‘Climate Change and Security in Asia: Issues and Implictions for Australia’, Melbourne Asia Policy Papers, no. 9 (Melbourne: University of Melbourne, 2007); Joshua W. Busby, ‘Climate Change and Security: An Agenda for Action’, Council on Foreign Relations, no. 32 (Washington, DC: Council on Foreign Relations, 2007); Kurt M. Campbell et al., ‘The Age of Consequences: The Foreign Policy and National Security Implications of Global Climate Change’, Center for Strategic and International Studies and Center for a New American Security (Washington, DC: Center for a New American Security, 2007); Nick Mabey, Delivering Climate Security: International Security Responses to a Climate Changed World (London: Third Generation Environmentalism Ltd, 2008); Spencer Weart, ‘A National Security Issue? How People Tried to Frame Global Warming’, in Global Climate Change: National Security Implications, ed. Carolyn Pumphrey (US Army War College, Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 2008), http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/2008/ssi_pumphrey.pdf (accessed March 9, 2014).
41 Michael Wesley, ‘Climate Views Have Moved On’, Lowy Institute for International Policy, http://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/climate-views-have-moved (accessed March 23, 2013).
42 Andrew MacIntosh, Deb Wilkinson, and Richard Denniss, ‘Climate Change’, in The Rudd Government: Australian Commonwealth Administration 2007–2010, ed. Chris Aulich and Mark Evans (Canberra: ANU E Press, 2010), 589–653.
43 Kevin M. Rudd, ‘Australia 2020 – Setting our Nation's Sights for the Future, Address to the Sydney Institute Annual Dinner 2008’, http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=15873 (accessed February 10, 2014).
44 Kevin M. Rudd, ‘Climate Change and Water’, http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/79983/20080812-0001/www.pm.gov.au/topics/climate.html (accessed February 10, 2014).
45 Kevin M. Rudd, ‘Address to the Lowy Institute’, http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=16904 (accessed February 8, 2014).
46 For example, the creation of a ministerial portfolio for Climate Change and Energy Efficiency along with the Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency.
47 Kevin M. Rudd, ‘Address to the East Asia Forum in Conjunction with the Australian National University, Advancing Australia's Global and Regional Economic Interests', http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=15823 (accessed February 11, 2014).
48 Rudd, ‘The First National Security Statement to the Parliament Address'.
49 Kevin M. Rudd, ‘Address to the London School of Economics: Australia and the UK – Global Partners in Shaping the Future Global Order, London’, http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=15847 (accessed February 18, 2014).
50 Kevin M. Rudd, ‘Transcript of Address at the Close of the Pacific Islands Forum Cairns', http://pmtranscripts.dpmc.gov.au/browse.php?did=16737 (accessed February 3, 2014).
51 Rudd, ‘The First National Security Statement to the Parliament’.
52 Kevin M. Rudd, ‘Focus on Climate Change – Prime Minister Blog’, http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/79983/20091030-1529/www.pm.gov.au/PM_Connect/PMs_Blog/Climate_Change_Blog.html (accessed February 2014).
53 Rudd, ‘The First National Security Statement to the Australian Parliament'.
54 HADR was tended to be framed as part of the Labor Government's National Security.
55 Joel Fitzgibbon, ‘Making Defence Policy in Uncertain Times' (speech, Shangri-La Conference, Singapore, May 31, 2008).
56 Mike Kelly, ‘PNG: Securing a Prosperous Future’ (speech, Deakin University, Geelong, April 13, 2012).
57 Mike Kelly, ‘John Gee Memorial Lecture’ (lecture, Australian National University, Canberra, August 29, 2008).
58 Warren Snowden, ‘Australia's Strategic Imperatives presented to the ASPI Global Forces Conference’ (ministerial release, Australian Strategic Policy Institute, Canberra, July 2, 2008).
59 Numerous actions were undertaken to increase military HADR, including (1) the first desktop regional disaster-relief exercise co-hosted by Indonesia and Australia in May 2008; (2) the first field activity for ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) that witnessed an ADF contingent join other South East Asian, Pacific Island, the US and other countries in demonstrating disaster relief capabilities; (3) establishment in 2008 of the Asia Pacific Centre for Civil Military Cooperation with the aim to improve Australia's effectiveness in civil–military collaboration for conflict and HADR management (administered by the Vice Chief of Defence Force); (4) Strategic Partnership Agreement (2009) between the ADF and AUSAID, providing a closer framework for cooperation between the two agencies in recognition of shared strategic interests; and (5) increased international strategic agreements and activities with Asia Pacific nations in which HADR was emphasized. Examples included Exercise COOPERATION SPIRIT a HADR activity hosted by the ADF in participation with Chinese People Liberation Army and the New Zealand Defence Force (2012); increased US–Australian cooperation on HADR as instanced by the Regional Leaders Seminar in Cairns (2011) that featured HADR; Defence Cooperation Agreement with Vietnam emphasizing HADR (2010). For examples of ministers framing defence capability in terms of HADR, see Minister for Defence statement that Labor procured two amphibious vessels specifically ‘in support of HADR operations' (Stephen Smith, ‘Minister for Defence and Minister for Defence Materiel – Joint Media Release – Ocean Shield arrives in Australia’ (media release, Canberra, June 30, 2012).
60 Department of Defence, Defence White Paper 2013 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2013), 18–19.
61 Department of Defence, ‘Asset Management and Purchasing’, in Defence Annual Review 20012–13, http://www.defence.gov.au/annualreports/12-13/pdf/Defence%20Annual%20Report%202012-13.pdf (accessed September 12, 2014); Department of Defence, Defence Support and Reform Program, http://www.defence.gov.au/dsg/ (accessed September 12, 2014); Thomas, ‘Climate Change and the ADF’.
62 Major Martin White, ‘The Compelling Requirement to Energy-Proof the Australian Defence Force’, Journal of the Australian Profession of Arms, no. 175 (2008): 12.
63 GHG emission reductions targets by the ADF were identified to form part of ADF policy in the 2009 Defence Annual Report, along with an intention to publish a Defence Climate Change and Sustainable Development Strategy, but no mention of these initiatives appeared in the 2010 Defence Annual Report. See Department of Defence, Defence Annual Report 2008–2009, http://www.defence.gov.au/AnnualReports/08-09/2008-2009_Defence_DAR_v1full.pdf (accessed November 19, 2014) and Department of Defence, Defence Annual Report 2009–2010, http://www.defence.gov.au/AnnualReports/09-10/dar_0910_v1_full.pdf (accessed November 19, 2014).
64 ADF emissions profile calculated from combining defence GHG emissions data provided in Energy Use in the Australian Government's Operations series from 2006 to 2013.
65 Department of Defence, ‘Combat Climate Change’, http://www.defence.gov.au/environment/climate_change/ (accessed April 3, 2014).
66 Alexander, ‘Climate Change on Radar’.
67 Benedikte Jensen, ‘Interdepartmental Committee on Adaptation Terms of Reference’ (2013), http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:5aGHEhqSs_gJ:https://senate.aph.gov.au/submissions/comittees/viewdocument.aspx%3Fid%3Df4b02515-fbc4-48f2-a0e3-eb76cca0f832+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au (accessed March 3, 2014).
68 The dominant frame in many military environmental policy related documents remained protection of ‘the environment’. Under this rubric, the ADF undertook numerous initiatives, but the case was never clearly made on what their connection (if any) was to climate change. Often, the initiatives were designed to ensure positive corporate governance, meeting of various legislative requirements and the sustainability and preservation of natural resources for future ADF use (e.g. defence training grounds).
69 Chun Zhang, ‘Rebuilding Middle Power Leadership for Australia’, Journal of the Australian Profession of Arms, no. 180 (2009), 7–9.
70 Mark Thomson, ‘The Cost of Defence: ASPI Defence Budget Brief 2013–14’ (Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2013).
71 Angus Houston, ‘Future Security Prospects, Future Capability Plans and how the ADF Makes a Contribution to a “Whole of Government” Approach to National Security’ (lecture, Australian National University, Canberra, October 29, 2010).
72 Official Committee Hansard of the Commonwealth of Australia Senate, ‘Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade: Questions on Notice – Committees', Senate Budget Estimates, Question 95 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, May 28/29, 2012).
73 Department of Defence, Defence Annual Report 2008–09 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 2009).
74 Macintosh et al., ‘Climate Change’.
75 Philip Chubb, ‘The Day the Rudd Government Lost Its Way on Climate Change’, http://www.theage.com.au/insight/the-day-the-rudd-government-lost-its-way-on-climate-change-20140509-zr7fm.html (accessed May 26, 2014).
76 Chris Aulich, ‘It was the Best of Times; It was the Worst of Times', in The Rudd Government: Australian Commonwealth Administration 2007–2010, ed. Chris Aulich and Mark Evans (Canberra: ANU E Press, 2010), 15–53.
77 See Philip Chubb, Power Failure: The Inside Story of Climate Politics under Rudd and Gillard (Collingwood, Vic.: Black Inc. Agenda, 2014).
78 Rudd, ‘The First National Security Statement to the Australian Parliament’.
79 Ibid.
80 Margaret Beckett, ‘The Case for Climate Security’, Royal United Services Institute, http://www.rusi.org/events/past/ref:E464343E93D15A/info:public/infoID:E4643430E3E85A/ (accessed January 10, 2013).
81 Michael Evans, ‘The Tyranny of Dissonance: Australia's Strategic Culture and Way of War 1901–2005’, Land Warfare Studies Centre, Study Paper no. 306 (Canberra: Department of Defence, 2005).
82 Betsy Hartmann, ‘Rethinking Climate Refugees and Climate Conflict: Rhetoric, Reality and the Politics of Policy Discourse’, Journal of International Development 22, no. 2 (2010): 233–46.
83 In this view, it is not surprising that the very public and very political 2012 ADF Force Posture Review did not address climate change.
84 Julia Terreu, ‘Can the Australian Military Think Out Loud’, The Diplomat, April 2014, http://thediplomat.com/2014/04/can-the-australian-military-think-out-loud/ (accessed April 9, 2014).
85 Tony Abbott, ‘Statement to Parliament on National Security’ (2014), https://www.pm.gov.au/media/2014-09-22/statement-parliament-national-security (accessed October 15, 2014).
86 Buzan et al., Security: A New Framework for Analysis, 1.