Resilience and environmental security: towards joint application in peacebuilding

ABSTRACT

Resilience is a widely used concept among development, environmental, security and peacebuilding organizations. However, resilience has rarely been applied in conjunction with the potentially complementary concept of environmental security. Therefore, this paper explores how the concepts of resilience and environmental security can be jointly applied by non-governmental organizations working to implement peacebuilding projects in developing countries. We first review definitions of the concepts and explore their strengths and pitfalls. Second, we develop a conceptual framework for a joint application whereby environmental security sharpens the scope of resilience, while resilience allows for taking issues into account that a traditional environmental security perspective might miss. Finally, we apply the conceptual framework to a case study from Palestine.

KEYWORDS:

• Resilience
• environment
• security
• peacebuilding
• NGO
• Palestine

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Erratum

Acknowledgements

We thank the three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors

Janpeter Schilling holds a Klaus Töpfer Junior Professorship for Landuse Conflicts at the University of Koblenz-Landau. He is an associated researcher at the Research Group Climate Change and Security (CLISEC) at the University of Hamburg, the peacebuilding organization International Alert in London and the Peace Academy Rhineland-Palatinate in Landau. His research focuses on environmental security, conflict and resilience.

Sarah Louise Nash is a 2016/17 Mercator-IPC fellow at Istanbul Policy Center, Sabanci University and an associated postdoctoral researcher with the Research Group Climate Change and Security (CLISEC) at the University of Hamburg. Her research focuses on the politics of climate change and human mobility.

Tobias Ide is head of the Research Field Peace and Conflict at the Georg Eckert Institute and currently a visiting researcher at the School of Geography, University of Melbourne. He is an associated researcher with the Research Group Climate Change and Security (CLISEC) at the University of Hamburg. He works on environmental conflicts, climate security, environmental peacebuilding, and the representation of peace and conflict, especially in school textbooks.

Jürgen Scheffran is a professor of geography and head of the Research Group Climate Change and Security (CLISEC) at the University of Hamburg, ‘Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability (CEN)’, and the Cluster of Excellence ‘Integrated Climate System Analysis and Prediction – CliSAP’. His research specialities are climate and conflict research, sustainability science, resilience and energy and human security.

Rebecca Froese is a PhD candidate in the Department of Earth System Sciences at the University of Hamburg and a member of the Research Group Climate Change and Security (CLISEC) at the University of Hamburg. Her research focuses on development cooperation and the role of non-party stakeholders in implementing and financing climate action.

Pina von Prondzinski is a geography student enrolled in the joint Masters programme Geography of Environmental Risk and Human Security at the University of Bonn and the United Nations University. She is a member of the Research Group Climate Change and Security (CLISEC) at the University of Hamburg. Her research interests include environmental governance, environmental change and disaster risk, as well as environmental justice.

Notes

1 United Nations (UN), Building Disaster Resilient Communities (Geneva: United Nations, 2007).

2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

3 United Nations (UN), Resilient People, Resilient Planet – A Future Worth Choosing (New York: United Nations, 2012). See also Lukas Rüttinger et al., A New Climate for Peace – Taking Action on Climate and Fragility Risks. An Independent Report Commissioned by the G7 Members (Berlin/London/Washington/Paris: adelphi, International Alert, The Wilson Center, EUISS, 2015).

4 UN, Resilient People, Resilient Planet.

5 Myriam Dunn Cavelty, Mareile Kaufmann, and Kristian Søby Kristensen, ‘Resilience and (in)Security: Practices, Subjects, Temporalities’, Security Dialogue 46, no. 1 (2015): 3–14, 3

6 Michael Kramer, ‘Resilience is the New Sustainability’, http://www.greenbiz.com/article/resilience-new-sustainability (accessed July 22, 2015).

7 For a recent effort by adelphi, International Alert, the Wilson Center and European Institute for Security Studies to connect security and environmental issues with resilience, see Rüttinger et al., A New Climate for Peace.

8 United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Resilience at USAID (Washington, DC: USAID, 2016).

9 We understand peacebuilding as ‘the set of processes [and measures] whose purpose is to gain and maintain peace. This means activities and interventions that are designed to influence events, processes and actors to create new outcomes, so that peaceful conditions are gained and/or maintained'. International Alert, Programming Framework for International Alert (London: International Alert, 2010), 6.

10 These include peacebuilding organizations, development organizations and actors working in humanitarian assistance.

11 International Alert was chosen because it is the largest peacebuilding organization in Europe and the organization works on conflict and environmental issues using both resilience and environmental security. See International Alert, ‘What We Work On’, http://www.international-alert.org/what-we-work (accessed July 1, 2016). For the full studies on Nepal and Bangladesh see Janpeter Schilling et al., ‘Vulnerability to Environmental Risks and Effects on Community Resilience in Mid-West Nepal and South-East Pakistan’, Environment and Natural Resources Research 3, no. 4 (2013): 1–19. And Janani Vivekananda et al., ‘On Shrimp, Salt and Security: Livelihood Risks and Responses in South Bangladesh and East India’, Environment, Development and Sustainability 16, no. 6 (2014): 1141–61.

12 T. Ide and C. Fröhlich, ‘Socio-Environmental Cooperation and Conflict? A Discursive Understanding and Its Application to the Case of Israel and Palestine’, Earth System Dynamics 6, no. 2 (2015): 659–71.

13 F. S. Brand and K. Jax, ‘Focusing the Meaning(s) of Resilience: Resilience as a Descriptive Concept and a Boundary Object’, Ecology and Society 21, no. 1 (2007): 1–23; Lennart Olsson et al., ‘Why Resilience is Unappealing to Social Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations of the Scientific Use of Resilience’, Science Advances 1, no. 4 (2015).

14 C. S. Holling, ‘Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems’, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4 (1973): 1–23; ibid.

15 Holling in Muriel Cote and Andrea J. Nightingale, ‘Resilience Thinking Meets Social Theory: Situating Social Change in Socio-Ecological Systems (SES) Research’, Progress in Human Geography 36, no. 4 (2012): 475–89, 476.

16 Ibid., 477.

17 W. Neil Adger, ‘Social and Ecological Resilience: Are They Related?’, Progress in Human Geography 24, no. 3 (2000): 347–64, 347.

18 Ibid., 347.

19 Vincent T. Gawronski and Richard Stuart Olson, ‘Disasters as Crisis Triggers for Critical Junctures? The 1976 Guatemala Case’, Latin American Politics and Society 55, no. 2 (2013): 133–49.

20 Tobias Ide and Jürgen Scheffran, ‘On Climate, Conflict and Cumulation: Suggestions for Integrative Cumulation of Knowledge in the Research on Climate Change and Violent Conflict’, Global Change, Peace & Security (2014): 1–17.

21 Rüttinger et al., A New Climate for Peace, 14. OECD, Fragile States 2013: Resource Flows and Trends in a Shifting World (Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2012), 19.

22 Adger, ‘Social and Ecological Resilience’.

23 Inter-Agency Working Group on Resilience, ‘The Characteristics of Resilience Building’, http://community.eldis.org/?233@@.5ad4406d!enclosure=.5ad4406e&ad=1 (accessed April 2, 2013).

24 United Nations Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction UNISDR, ‘Terminology’, http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology (accessed July 27, 2015).

25 Adger, ‘Social and Ecological Resilience’; Inter-Agency Working Group on Resilience, ‘The Characteristics of Resilience Building’; UNISDR, ‘Terminology’.

26 David Chandler, ‘Resilience and Human Security: The Post-Interventionist Paradigm’, Security Dialogue 43, no. 3 (2012): 213–29, 224; Olaf Corry, ‘From Defense to Resilience: Environmental Security Beyond Neo-Liberalism’, International Political Sociology 8, no. 3 (2014): 256–74, 257. IPCC, Climate Change 2014.

27 For example, IPCC, Climate Change 2014.

28 See Appendix for a table listing a selection of existing definitions.

29 Jon Barnett, Richard Matthew, and Karen O’Brian, ‘Global Environmental Change and Human Security: An Introduction’ in Global Environmental Change and Human Security, ed. Richard Matthew et al. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2010); Braden R. Allenby, ‘Environmental Security: Concept and Implementation’, International Political Science Review/Revue internationale de science politique 21, no. 1 (2000): 5–21.

30 Matt McDonald, ‘Discourses of Climate Security’, Political Geography 33, no. 1 (2013): 42–51; Franziskus von Lucke, Zehra Wellmann, and Thomas Diez, ‘What's at Stake in Securitising Climate Change? Towards a Differentiated Approach’, Geopolitics 19, no. 4 (2014): 857–84.

31 Jon Barnett, The Meaning of Environmental Security (London: Palgrave, 2001), 12.

32 For example, T. Homer-Dixon, Environmental Scarcity and Violence (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999).

33 Center for Naval Analysis (CNA), National Security and the Accelerating Risks of Climate Change (Alexandria: VA: Center for Naval Analysis, 2014), 2.

34 Barry Buzan, People, States and Fear (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 19–20.

35 Frederick in Richard Matthew, ‘Environmental Security – Demystifying the Concept, Clarifying the Stakes’, in Environmental Change and Security Program Report 1, ed. Geoffrey Dabelko et al. (Washington, DC: Environmental Change and Security Program, 1995), 20.

36 See Jason B. Aronoff, ed., Handbook of Nature Conservation: Global, Environmental and Economic Issues (Hauppauge: Nova Science, 2009).

37 Securitization is the process of making something or someone a security issue and thereby justifying extraordinary measures. See Angela Oels, ‘From ‘Securitization’ of Climate Change to ‘Climatization’ of the Security Field: Comparing Three Theoretical Perspectives’, in Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict, ed. Jürgen Scheffran et al., Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace (Berlin: Springer 2012); Rita Floyd, Security and the Environment. Securitization Theory and Us Environmental Security Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

38 For example, Floyd, Security and the Environment. Stephanie Cousins, ‘UN Security Council: Playing a Role in the International Climate Change Regime?’, Global Change, Peace & Security 25, no. 2 (2013): 191–210.

39 Jon Barnett and W. Neil Adger, ‘Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict’, Political Geography 26, no. 6 (2007): 639–55.

40 Vivekananda et al., ‘On Shrimp, Salt and Security’, 1143.

41 von Lucke, Wellmann, and Diez, ‘What's at Stake in Securitising Climate Change?’.

42 See Betsy Hartmann, ‘Rethinking Climate Refugees and Climate Conflict: Rhetoric, Reality and the Politics of Policy Discourse’, Journal of International Development 22, no. 2 (2010): 233–46; Nicole Detraz, ‘Threats or Vulnerabilities? Assessing the Link between Climate Change and Security’, Global Environmental Politics 11, no. 3 (2011): 104–20.

43 Gilberto C. Gallopín, ‘Linkages between Vulnerability, Resilience, and Adaptive Capacity’, Global Environmental Change 16, no. 3 (2006): 293–303.

44 The idea of building resilience thereby also draws on the capacity building literature. See Mary Venner, ‘The Concept of ‘Capacity' in Development Assistance: New Paradigm or More of the Same?’, Global Change, Peace & Security 27, no. 1 (2015): 85–96.

45 Weak governance usually refers to states that are incapable (or unwilling) ‘of assuring basic security, maintaining rule of law and justice, or providing basic services and economic opportunities for their citizens’ GSDRC Governance Social Development – Humanitarian – Conflict GSDRC, ‘Definitions and Typologies of Fragile States’, http://www.gsdrc.org/go/fragile-states/chapter-1--understanding-fragile-states/definitions-and-typologies-of-fragile-states (accessed January 23, 2014). See also Janani Vivekananda, Janpeter Schilling, and Dan Smith, ‘Climate Resilience in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Societies: Concepts and Approaches’, Development in Practice 24, no. 4 (2014): 487–501.

46 Cote and Nightingale, ‘Resilience Thinking Meets Social Theory’, 484.

47 Adger, ‘Social and Ecological Resilience’.

48 For further discussion see Vivekananda, Schilling, and Smith, ‘Climate Resilience in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Societies’; Janani Vivekananda, Janpeter Schilling, and Dan Smith, ‘Understanding Resilience in Climate Change and Conflict Affected Regions of Nepal’, Geopolitics 19, no. 4 (2014): 911–36.

49 Vivekananda, Schilling, and Smith, ‘Climate Resilience in Fragile and Conflict-Affected Societies’; Mikael Granberg and Leigh Glover, ‘Adaptation and Maladaptation in Australian National Climate Change Policy’, Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 16, no. 2 (2013): 147–59; Jon Barnett and Saffron O'Neill, ‘Maladaptation’, Global Environmental Change 20, no. 2 (2010): 211–13.

50 For example, Schilling et al., ‘Vulnerability to Environmental Risks and Effects’.

51 Dunn Cavelty, Kaufmann, and Søby Kristensen, ‘Resilience and (in)Security’, 5

52 Ibid.

53 Patrick Helm, ‘Risk and Resilience: Strategies for Security’, Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems 32, no. 1–2 (2015): 100–18.

54 S. M. Baker, ‘Vulnerability and Resilience in Natural Disasters: A Marketing and Public Policy Perspective’, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 28, no. 1 (2009): 114–23, 120.

55 Adger, ‘Social and Ecological Resilience’, 361.

56 Chandler, ‘Resilience and Human Security’, 224.

57 See also Chris Methmann and Angela Oels, ‘Vulnerability’, in Critical Environmental Politics, ed. Carl Death (Abington and New York: Routledge, 2014).

58 See also Cote and Nightingale, ‘Resilience Thinking Meets Social Theory’.

59 Jürgen Scheffran, Elina Marmer, and Papa Sow, ‘Migration as a Contribution to Resilience and Innovation in Climate Adaptation: Social Networks and Co-Development in Northwest Africa’, Applied Geography 33 (2012): 119–27, 120.

60 Schilling et al., ‘Vulnerability to Environmental Risks and Effects’, 27; see also Vivekananda, Schilling, and Smith, ‘Understanding Resilience in Climate Change and Conflict Affected Regions of Nepal’.

61 This was done to avoid biases and to acknowledge the possibility of some community members opposing being labelled as ‘resilient’.

62 Schilling et al., ‘Vulnerability to Environmental Risks and Effects’.

63 Cote and Nightingale, ‘Resilience Thinking Meets Social Theory’, 475.

64 Micah L. Ingalls and Richard C. Stedman, ‘The Power Problematic: Exploring the Uncertain Terrains of Political Ecology and the Resilience Framework’, Ecology and Society 21, no. 1 (2016).

65 Methmann and Oels, ‘Vulnerability’, 284.

66 Julian Reid, ‘The Disastrous and Politically Debased Subject of Resilience’, Development Dialogues 58 (2012): 67–79, 74.

67 Ibid., 74.

68 J. Joseph, ‘Resilience as Embedded Neoliberalism: A Governmentality Approach’, Resilience: International Policies, Practices and Discourses 1, no. 1 (2013): 38–52, 43.

69 Ibid., 42.

70 Brad Evans and Julian Reid, ‘Dangerously Exposed: The Life and Death of the Resilient Subject’, Resilience: International Policies, Practices and Discourses 1, no. 2: 83–98, 91.

71 Chandler, ‘Resilience and Human Security’, 213.

72 C. Methmann and A. Oels, ‘From ‘Fearing' to ‘Empowering' Climate Refugees: Governing Climate-Induced Migration in the Name of Resilience’, Security Dialogue 46, no. 1 (2015): 51–68, 63.

73 H. C. Dyer, ‘Environmental Security as a Universal Value: Implications for International Theory’, in Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes, ed. John Vogler and Marc Imber (London: Routledge, 1996), 33.

74 Ibid., 33.

75 Cousins, ‘UN Security Council’, 138.

76 Barnett, The Meaning of Environmental Security.

77 Matthew, ‘Environmental Security – Demystifying the Concept, Clarifying the Stakes.’

78 Barnett, The Meaning of Environmental Security.

79 Rita Floyd, ‘Environmental Security and the Case against Rethinking Criminology as ‘Security-Ology'’, Criminology and Criminal Justice 15, no. 3 (2015): 277–82.

80 Barnett, The Meaning of Environmental Security.

81 Vivekananda et al., ‘On Shrimp, Salt and Security’.

82 For more details see ibid.

83 Ibid.

84 Ibid.

85 Ibid.

86 Hartmann, ‘Rethinking Climate Refugees and Climate Conflict’; Maria Trombetta, ‘Environmental Security and Climate Change: Analysing the Discourse’, Cambridge Review of International Affairs 21, no. 4 (2008): 585–602.

87 Ken Conca and Geoffrey Dabelko, eds., Environmental Peacemaking (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2002).

88 Michael Brzoska, ‘The Securitization of Climate Change and the Power of Conceptions of Security’, Sicherheit und Frieden 27, no. 3 (2009): 137–45; Oels, ‘From ‘Securitization' of Climate Change to ‘Climatization’ of the Security Field’.

89 Maria Trombetta, ‘Climate Change and the Environmental Conflict Discourse’, in Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict, ed. Jürgen Scheffran et al., Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace (Berlin: Springer 2012); Trombetta, ‘Environmental Security and Climate Change’.

90 Daniel Deudney, ‘The Case against Linking Environmental Degradation and National Security’, Millennium – Journal of International Studies 19, no. 3 (1990): 461–76; McDonald, ‘Discourses of Climate Security.’

91 Dan Smith and Janani Vivekananda, ‘Climate Change, Conflict, and Fragility: Getting the Institutions Right’, in Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict, ed. Jürgen Scheffran et al., Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace (Berlin: Springer, 2012).

92 For an example see Shreya Mitra et al., ‘Developing Risk or Resilience? Effects of Slum Upgrading on the Social Contract and Social Cohesion in Kibera, Nairobi’, Environment and Urbanization (2017 (accepted)).

93 Jan Selby and Clemens Hoffmann, ‘Beyond Scarcity: Rethinking Water, Climate Change and Conflict in the Sudans’, Global Environmental Change 29 (2014): 360–70.

94 Vanesa Broto, ‘Viewpoint: Planning for Climate Change in the African City’, International Development Planning Review 36, no. 3 (2014): 257–64; for an example see Schilling et al., ‘Vulnerability to Environmental Risks and Effects’.

95 The framework can generally be applied to all situations in which resources are identified to play a key role in conflict dynamics but the approach is most suitable to sub-national and primarily local conflicts. For a classification of situations and different levels of fragility see Rüttinger et al., A New Climate for Peace.

96 The structure of the six steps listed under environmental security and resilience are adapted from the categories of the widely used DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact, Response) framework. See European Environment Agency (EEA), Air Pollution in Europe 1997 – Executive Summary (Copenhagen: EEA, 1997). Peter Kristensen, ‘The Dpsir Framework’, http://wwz.ifremer.fr/dce/content/download/69291/913220/file/DPSIR.pdf (accessed June 17, 2016).

97 Jürgen Scheffran and Elise Remling, ‘The Social Dimensions of Human Security in Climate Change’, in Handbook on Climate Change and Human Security, ed. M. R. Redclift and M. Grasso (Chaltenham: Edward Elgar, 2013).

98 Robin Twite, ‘Security and Environment and the Israel-Palestine Conflict’, in Facing Global Environmental Change (2009).

99 Noam Halfon, Zev Levin, and Pinhas Alpert, ‘Temporal Rainfall Fluctuations in Israel and Their Possible Link to Urban and Air Pollution Effects’, Environmental Research Letters 4, no. 2 (2009): 025001.

100 Eran Feitelson, Abdelrahman Tamimi, and Gad Rosenthal, ‘Climate Change and Security in the Israeli–Palestinian Context’, Journal of Peace Research 49, no. 1 (2012): 241–57.

101 Jonathan Lautze and Paul Kirshen, ‘Water Allocation, Climate Change, and Sustainable Water Use in Israel/Palestine: The Palestinian Position’, Water International 34, no. 2 (2009): 189–203.

102 Marc Zeitoun, Power and Water in the Middle East: The Hidden Politics of the Palestinian-Israeli Water Conflict (London: Tauris, 2008).

103 Ibid.

104 Jan Selby, ‘Cooperation, Domination and Colonisation: The Israeli-Palestinian Joint Water Committee’, Water Alternatives 6, no. 1 (2013): 1–24.

105 Paul Collier et al., Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 13.

106 Clemens Messerschmid, ‘Reality and Discourses of Climate Change in the Israel-Palestinian Conflict’, in Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict: Challenges for Societal Stability, ed. Jürgen Scheffran et al. (Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2012).

107 Selby, ‘Cooperation, Domination and Colonisation’.

108 Mushtaq Husain Khan, George Giacaman, and Inge Amundsen, State Formation in Palestine: Viability and Governance During a Social Transformation (London: Routledge, 2004).

109 Dahlia Moore and Anat Guy, ‘The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: The Sociohistorical Context and the Identities It Creates’, in Handbook of Ethnic Conflict: International Perspectives, ed. Dan Landis and Rosita Albert (New York: Springer, 2012).

110 Karin Aggestam and Anna Sundell-Eklund, ‘Situating Water in Peacebuilding: Revisiting the Middle East Peace Process’, Water International 39, no. 1 (2014): 10–22.

111 Annika Kramer, Regional Water Cooperation and Peacebuilding in the Middle East (Berlin: Adelphi Research, 2008).

112 Ide and Fröhlich, ‘Socio-Environmental Cooperation and Conflict?’.

113 FoEME, Why Cooperate over Water? Shared Waters of Palestine, Israel and Jordan: Cross-Border Crisis and the Need for Trans-National Solutions (Amman/Bethlehem/Tel Aviv: FoEME, 2010).

114 Ecopeace, Community Based Problem Solving on Water Issues: Cross-Border Priority Initiatives of the Good Wather Neighbors Project (Amman/Bethlehem/Tel Aviv: Ecopeace, 2013).

115 Tobias Ide, ‘Space, Discourse and Environmental Peacebuilding’, Third World Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2017): 544–62.

116 Nicole Harari and Jesse Roseman, Environmental Peacebuilding, Theory and Practice: A Case Study of the Good Water Neighbours Project and in Depth Analysis of the Wadi Fukin/Tzur Hadassah Communities (Amman/Bethlehem/Tel Aviv: FoEME, 2008).

117 Ecopeace, Community Based Problem Solving on Water Issues.

118 Ide and Fröhlich, ‘Socio-Environmental Cooperation and Conflict?’; Kramer, Regional Water Cooperation and Peacebuilding.

119 Kyra Marie Reynolds, ‘Unpacking the Complex Nature of Cooperative Interactions: Case Studies of Israeli–Palestinian Environmental Cooperation in the Greater Bethlehem Area’, GeoJournal (2016): 1–19.

120 Aggestam and Sundell-Eklund, ‘Situating Water in Peacebuilding’.

121 Samer Alatout, ‘Towards a Bio-Territorial Conception of Power: Territory, Population, and Environmental Narratives in Palestine and Israel’, Political Geography 25, no. 6 (2006): 601–21.

122 Adger, ‘Social and Ecological Resilience’, 347.

123 Terje Aven, ‘On Some Recent Definitions and Analysis Frameworks for Risk, Vulnerability, and Resilience’, Risk Analysis 31, no. 4 (2011): 515–22, 515.

124 David Chandler, ‘Resilience and Human Security’, 217.

125 Jon Coaffee and Pete Fussey, ‘Constructing Resilience through Security and Surveillance: The Politics, Practices and Tensions of Security-Driven Resilience’, Security Dialogue 46, no. 1 (2015): 86–105, 88.

126 Corry, ‘From Defense to Resilience’, 257.

127 Muriel Cote and Andrea J. Nightingale, ‘Resilience Thinking Meets Social Theory’, 475.

128 Charlie Edwards, Resilient Nation (London: Demos, 2005), 18.

129 Helm, ‘Risk and Resilience: Strategies for Security’, 102.

130 Inter-Agency Working Group on Resilience, ‘The Characteristics of Resilience Building ’, 7

131 IPCC, Climate Change 2014, 1772.

132 Will Medd and Heather Chappells, ‘Drought, Demand and the Scale of Resilience: Challenges for Interdisciplinarity in Practice’, Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 32, no. 3 (2007): 233–48, 234.

133 J. Park et al., ‘Integrating Risk and Resilience Approaches to Catastrophe Management in Engineering Systems’, Risk Analysis 33, no. 3 (2013): 356–67, 356.

134 Carla M. Sgrò, Andrew J. Lowe, and Ary A. Hoffmann, ‘Building Evolutionary Resilience for Conserving Biodiversity under Climate Change’, Evolutionary Applications 4, no. 2 (2011): 326–37, 327.

135 UK Cabinet Office, Dealing with Disaster (London: Crown, 2004), 1.

136 United Nations Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction UNISDR, ‘Terminology ’.

137 National Academy of Sciences, Disaster Resilience – A National Imperative (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 2012), 1

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Cluster of Excellence ‘Integrated Climate System Analysis and Prediction – CliSAP’, Universität Hamburg, funded by the German Science Foundation (DFG).