Investigation of a reliable and sustainable stand-alone hybrid energy system for freshwater supply: a case study

Figures & data

Table 1. Different HRES configurations to meet drinking water demand with ROD system.

Configuration	Year	Load Type	Objective function	Storage	Methods	Performance criteria & outcome
PV/WT (Zhao et al. 2022)	2022	ROD	COE	CAS	MOPSO	COE (0.34 $/kWh), NPC ($603,644), emission
PV/WT/DG (Hemeida et al. 2022)	2022	ROD	COE, RF, LPSP		MOMVO	COE (0.272 $/kWh), LPSP (0.1397), RF (92.37%)
PV/WT/Biomass (Roy, Hassan, and Das 2022)	2022	ROD	COE, DALYs	FC	GA	COE (0.1967 $/kWh), emission (56,345 kg/yr.), DALYs (7.89 × 10^−2)
PV/WT/DG (Das et al. 2022)	2022	ROD	COE, JC, EE	Battery	GA, PSO, GA-PSO	COE (0.234 $/kWh), JC (1.64), EE (24,038 kWh/yr.)
PV/WT/DG (Kotb et al. 2021)	2021	ROD	COE	Battery PHS	HOMER	COE (0.101 $/kWh), NPC ($1,048,046), payback period (1.1 yr.)
PV/WT/DG (Atallah et al. 2020)	2020	ROD	COE	Battery	HOMER	COE (0.107 $/kWh), NPC ($502,662), RF (93.1%), GHG
PV/WT/BG/HT/DG (Mousavi et al. 2020)	2020	ROD	COE	Battery	HOMER	COE (0.107 $/kWh), NPC ($538,765), RF (93.9%), CO2 (15,022 kg/yr.)
PV/WT/DG (Ibrahim et al. 2020)	2020	ROD	COE	Battery	HOMER	LCOE (0.2252 $/kWh), RF (52.5%), COW (1.10 $/m^3), emission
PV/WT/DG (Mehrjerdi 2020)	2020	ROD	NPC	Battery	HOMER	COE (0.145 $/kWh), NPC ($207,676), CO2 (117,677 kg/yr.)
PV/WT/DG (Elmaadawy et al. 2020)	2020	ROD	COE	Battery	HOMER	COE (0.164 $/kWh), NPC ($3.12 M), emission, RF
PV/WT/DG (Padrón et al. 2019)	2019	ROD	COE, NPC	Battery	HOMER + GA	COE (0.404 $/kW h), NPC ($473,013), and emission
PV/WT/DG (Gökçek 2018)	2018	ROD	COE, NPC	Battery	HOMER + ROSA	COE (0.308 $/kWh), NPC ($152,672), RF (90%), emission

NPC: net present cost, COE: cost of energy, RF: renewable fraction, HOMER: hybrid optimisation model for electric renewable, GA: genetic algorithm, HT: hydro turbine, CAS: compressed air storage, BG: biogas generator, JC: job creation, MOMVO: multi-objective multi-verse optimisation, FC: fuel cell, DALYs: damage to human health, EE: excess energy, PSO: particle swarm optimisation.

Figure 1. RO desalination process with RE-based hybrid system.

Table 2. Technical information of the proposed HES components.

Component	Specification	Data
PV (Islam et al. 2021)	Model	SPR-E20-327
	Nominal power, PPV	327 W
	Panel efficiency, ηPV	20.4%
	Rated voltage, Vmpp	54.7 V
	Rated current, Impp	5.98 A
	Power temperature coefficient, αp	0.35% °C
	NOCT	45 °C ± 2 °C
	Lifetime	25 years
Wind turbine (Hassan et al. 2016)	Model	BWC XL.1
	Rated capacity, RWT	1 kW
	Cut-in wind speed, Vcut-in	2.5 m/s
	Rated wind speed, Vrated	11 m/s
	Cut-out wind speed, Vcut-out	20 m/s
	Hub height, H	20 m
	Lifetime	20 years
Diesel generator (Atallah et al. 2020)	Model	Generic
	Rated capacity, RBG	3 kW
	Fuel curve intercept coefficient, N1	0.480 L/h
	Fuel curve slope, N2	0.286 L/h/kW
	Lifetime	15,000 h
Battery (Mandal, Das, and Hoque 2018)	Model	Surrette 6CS25P
	Nominal capacity, CBES	4.92 kWh
	Nominal voltage, VBES	48 V
	Roundtrip efficiency, ηRT	80%
	Depth of discharge	100%
	Self-discharge rate, σ	0.02%
	Lifetime	12 years
Inverter (Islam et al. 2021)	Model	Generic
	Nominal power, Pinv	1 kW
	Conversion efficiency, ηinv	96%
	Lifetime	15 years

Table 3. Financial information of the proposed HES components.

Component	Costs
	Capital ($/kW)	O&M ($/kW/yr.)	Replacement ($/kW)	Fuel ($/L)
PV (Islam et al. 2021)	1300	20	0	–
WT (Das et al. 2021c)	2300	2	1500	–
DG (Atallah et al. 2020)	500	0.03 $/h	500	0.77
Battery (Das et al. 2021a)	1100	10	1000	–
Inverter (Islam et al. 2021)	300	0	300	–

Figure 2. EMS for the RO desalination process with the HES.

Table 4. CO₂ life cycle equivalent emission for HES desalination process.

Components	GHG emissions (kg CO2-eq/kWh)	Reference
PV module	0.045	(Mandal, Das, and Hoque 2018)
Wind turbine	0.011	(Mandal, Das, and Hoque 2018)
Diesel generator	0.705	(Hassan et al. 2016)
Battery storage	0.028	(Mandal, Das, and Hoque 2018)
Reverse osmosis	0.149	(Clarke, Al-Abdeli, and Kothapalli 2015)
Inverter	0	(Mandal, Das, and Hoque 2018)

Figure 3. Flow chart of SSA-optimisation algorithm.

Figure 4. Flow chart of NSGA-II optimisation technique.

Figure 5. Flow chart of PSO optimisation algorithm.

Figure 6. Location map of the study area.

Figure 7. Hourly solar irradiation and wind velocity data of the study area.

Figure 8. Frequency distribution of solar irradiation for the study area.

Figure 9. Frequency distribution of wind velocity for the study area.

Figure 10. Hourly load demand for a day.

Table 5. Optimised results of the RO desalination HES.

Characteristics	GA			PSO		SSA
	PV/WT/Bat/DG	PV/Bat/DG		PV/WT/Bat/DG	PV/Bat/DG		PV/WT/Bat/DG	PV/Bat/DG
NPV	57	56		62	57		57	57
NWT	6	–		6	–		8	–
NDG	2	2		2	2		5	2
NBatt	45	27		44	26		30	25
Ninv	19	18		21	19		19	19
Fuel Consumption (L/yr)	1147	1797		1088	1703		1021	1,705
NPC ($)	188,680	146,230		182,210	144,340		167,110	141,940
Unmet Load (kWh/yr)	21.6	37.8		18	24.1		0	27
LPSP	0.0006	0.0012		0.00058	0.00076		0	0.0008
DG Operating hour (hr)	698	1093		465	1035		570	1,037
PV energy (kWh/yr)	29,150	28,639		31,708	29,150		29,150	29,150
WT energy (kWh/yr)	2977.6	–		2977.6	–		3970	–
DG Energy (kWh/yr)	3972	6221		2654	5895		3585	5,902

Figure 11. Comparison between LCOE and COW for different hybridised scenarios.

Figure 12. Break down of the total NPC for different optimised systems.

Figure 13. Optimal system sizing summary of PV/WT/Bat/DG-based HES configuration using SSA algorithm.

Figure 14. Optimal system sizing summary of PV/Bat/DG-based HES configuration using SSA algorithm.

Figure 15. Cost breakdown for the various optimised configurations.

Figure 16. Annual energy production from various HES components and the generated EE.

Figure 17. Time series data for power mix of PV/Bat/DG system with SSA algorithm.

Figure 18. Illustration of annual life cycle emission (LCE) and renewable fraction.

Table 6. Comparison of optimised PV/Bat/DG with diesel-only system using SSA algorithm.

Parameters	PV/Bat/DG	DG only
NPV	57	–
NWT	–	–
NDG	2	4
NBatt	25	–
Ninv	19	–
Fuel consumption (L/yr.)	1705	9025
LCOE ($/kWh)	0.179	0.22
COW ($/m^3)	1.37	1.65
NPC ($)	141,940	170,200
LCE (kg/yr.)	5921	22,542
EE (kWh/yr.)	402	0
Unmet load (kWh/yr.)	27	0
LPSP	0.0008	0
DG operating hour (h)	1037	4745
Total PV (kWh/yr.)	29,150	–

Figure 19. Effects of daily freshwater demand on COW for PV/WT/Bat/DG hybrid system.

Figure 20. Effects of daily freshwater demand on COW for PV/Bat/DG hybrid system.

Figure 21. Variation of component sizing with LPSP for PV/Bat/DG configuration with SSA algorithm.

Figure 22. Effects of LPSP on LCOE and NPC for PV/Bat/DG configuration with SSA algorithm.

Figure 23. Effects of LPSP on EE and LCE for PV/Bat/DG configuration with SSA algorithm.

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