Overall equipment effectiveness as a metric for assessing operational losses in wind farms: a critical review of literature

Figures & data

Figure 1. Costs of wind turbine lifespan – adapted from Sathler (2013).

Figure 2. Comparison of two life cycle cost scenarios – Source: Adapted from Sakurai (1997).

Figure 3. Six main losses.

Figure 4. Flow chart losses in wind power according to OEE tool.

Table 1. Main cause of losses by availability of wind power.

Losses	Example	Related papers	Investigation	Decision support	Controllers	Machine learning	Others
Breakdowns	Failures Corrective maintenance	FMEA – Luengo and Kolios (2015), Li, Teixeira, and Guedes Soares (2020), Scheu et al. (2019), Li, Huang, and Guedes Soares (2022), Lopez and Kolios (2022)	X	X		X
		Reliability and failure rate analysis – Faulstich, Hanh, and Tavner (2011), Tavner et al. (2013), Bhardwaj, Teixeira, and Guedes Soares (2019), Leimeister and Kolios (2018), Santelo et al. (2021), Fischer, Besnard, and Bertling (2012)	X	X
		Fault tree analysis on floating offshore turbine – Kang, Sun, and Guedes Soares (2019)	X
		Fault predictions/detection – Helbing and Ritter (2018), Chen et al. (2019), Lin, Liu, and Collu (2020), Zhang et al. (2018), Koltsidopoulos Papatzimos, Thies, and Dawood (2019), Martin, Mailhes, and Laval (2021), Han et al. (2022), McMorland et al. (2022)		X		X
		Uncertainties in O&M models – Ioannou, Angus, and Brennan (2019), Yang et al. (2020)	X
		Human impact on maintenance – Mentes and Turan (2019)	X
		Fatigue and failures related to weather – Gözcü and Stolpe (2020), Stewart and Lackner (2014), Horn, Krokstad, and Leira (2019), Reder, Yürüşen, and Melero (2018), Fæster et al. (2021), Gao, Sweetman, and Tang (2022), Zheng and Chen (2022)	X	X		X	X
Preventive maintenance	Preventive maintenance Inspections	Maintenance cost review for offshore Tusar and Sarker (2021), Nguyen, Chou, and Yu (2022)	X
		Method for better maintenance scheduling – Nguyen and Chou (2018), Duchesne et al. (2020), Zhong et al. (2019), Shafiee (2015), Nguyen and Chou (2019), Yürüşen et al. (2020), Li et al. (2016), Zheng, Zhou, and Zhang (2020), Sa’ad, Nyoungue, and Hajej (2022), O’Neil et al. (2023), Pandit, Kolios, and Infield (2020)		X		X
		CBM – Li, Teixeira, and Guedes Soares (2020), Baboli et al. (2020)	X	X		X
		Reliability monitoring – Martin, Mailhes, and Laval (2021), Lin, Liu, and Collu (2020), Zhang et al. (2018), Izquierdo et al. (2020), Yin et al. (2020)		X		X

Table 2. Main cause of losses by performance in wind power (*Not fully responsibility of operators **Only offshore deployments).

Losses	Example	Related papers	Investigation	Decision support	Controllers	Machine learning	Others
Climate conditions*	Wind features: Turbulence Direction Air density Rain Humidity Season High temperature Period of the day Waves**	Power curve models (important to define standard rate) and output prediction – Archer et al. (2017), Yu et al. (2020), Paiva, Veiga Rodrigues, and Palma (2014), Sathler et al. (2020), Saint-Drenan et al. (2020), Shen and Ritter (2016), Yan, Pan, and Archer (2019), Pandit, Infield, and Carroll (2019), Sathler and Kolios (2022)	X	X		X
		Investigation of the impact of climate and wind conditions:
		Turbulence – Bardal and Sætran (2017)	X
		Air density – Pandit, Infield, and Kolios (2020)				X
		Rain – Arastoopour and Cohan (2017)	X
		Humidity – Danook, Jassim, and Hussein (2019)	X
		Period of the day – Tian et al. (2020)	X
		Seasons – Simão et al. (2017)	X	X
		Direction – Argyle and Watson (2017)	X	X		X
		Waves – Li et al. (2020), Horn, Krokstad, and Leira (2019), Fang et al. (2020)	X
Reduced Speed	Ageing Blades Factures/Erosion Icing Dust Wake effects Low speed of components Start-up	Losses due to ageing – Dai et al. (2018), Hamilton et al. (2020), Staffell and Green (2014), Liu and Zhang (2022)	X
		Losses due to fractures/erosion – Chen (2018), Sareen, Sapre, and Selig (2014)	X
		Icing losses detection and estimation – Chen et al. (2019), Dong et al. (2020), Stoyanov and Nixon (2020), Yirtici, Ozgen, and Tuncer (2019), Scher and Molinder (2019), Swenson et al. (2022)	X		X	X
		Investigation on wake effects – Ciri, Rotea, and Leonardi (2017), Kheirabadi and Nagamune (2019), El-Asha, Zhan, and Iungo (2017), Argyle and Watson (2017), Pryor, Barthelmie, and Shepherd (2021), Chang et al. (2022)	X	X
		Reduce wake effects – van Dijk et al. (2017), Park and Law (2016), Frederik et al. (2020), Fleming et al. (2014), Kanev (2020), Howland, Lele, and Dabiri (2019), Lee et al. (2013), Dou et al. (2020), Shu, Song, and Joo (2022)		X	X
		Losses due to impact of wave loads – Stewart and Lackner (2014), Li et al. (2020), Karimian Aliabadi and Rasekh (2020)		X	X		X
		Improving performance – Astolfi et al. (2015), Pieralli, Ritter, and Odening (2015), Karakasis et al. (2018)	X		X
		Balance between load and output – Liao et al. (2020)			X
		Reduce cut in and minimise losses – Fan and Zhu (2019)					X
Minor stoppage	Small failures (don`t stop production) Defects	Identifying malfunctioning – Archer et al. (2017), Chang et al. (2020), Astolfi et al. (2015), Liao et al. (2020), Al-Khayat et al. (2021)	X	X		X
		Fault-tolerant identification – Shahbazi, Poure, and Saadate (2018)		X
Controllers	Misinterpretation of signals Faults Controller`s setting	Yaw controller – Dou et al. (2020), Dai et al. (2021), Dai et al. (2018), Kragh and Hansen (2015), Yesilbudak, Sagiroglu, and Colak (2015), Kress, Chokani, and Abhari (2015)	X		X	X
		Stall controller Mohammadi, Fadaeinedjad, and Naji (2018)			X
		Pitch controller – Namik and Stol (2010), Jiang, Karimirad, and Moan (2014), Lee et al. (2013), Zamzoum et al. (2020), Dahbi, Nait-Said, and Nait-Said (2016)	X		X
		PI controller – Mirzaei, Tibaldi, and Hansen (2016)			X

Table 3. Main causes of losses by quality in wind power (*Not fully the responsibility of operators).

Losses	Example	Related papers	Investigation	Decision support	Controllers	Machine learning	Others
Out of requirements	Frequency voltage harmonics flickers converters` fault	Fluctuations in output – Al kez et al. (2020), Benzohra et al. (2020), Margaris et al. (2011), Mahela et al. (2020)	X
		Loses due frequency – Datta, Shi, and Kalam (2019), Prasad, Purwar, and Kishor (2019), Wang, Wang, and Liu (2020)			X		X
		Flickers – Al kez et al. (2020), Mohammadi, Fadaeinedjad, and Naji (2018)	X
		Losses in quality due to wave misalignments – Li et al. (2020), Wen et al. (2018)	X
		Harmonics – Zamzoum et al. (2020), Bantras et al. (2012)	X		X
		Voltage fluctuation – Mohammadi, Fadaeinedjad, and Naji (2018), Sáiz-Marín et al. (2015), Sáiz-Marín, Lobato, and Egido (2018), Ge et al. (2016)	X		X
		Losses due to power flow controller and converter`s fault – Sridhar and Kumar (2019), Yoo et al. (2019), Liang et al. (2022)			X
Grid availability*	Curtailment inertia security grid faults ramps	Estimation and investigation of curtailment in different countries – Davison-Kernan et al. (2019), Jorgensen, Mai, and Brinkman (2017), Mc Garrigle, Deane, and Leahy (2013), Nycander et al. (2020)	X				X
		Proposed method to reduce curtailment – Probst (2020), Mora, Spelling, and Van Der Weijde (2019), Zhang et al. (2018), Soroudi, Rabiee, and Keane (2017), Wang et al. (2018)	X		X		X
		Reducing/Monitoring ramps – Zhang et al. (2014), Kiviluoma et al. (2016), Martín-Martínez et al. (2013)	X
		Hybrid system to reduce curtailment and instability – Wimalaratna et al. (2022), Al-Ghussain et al. (2023), Kealy (2023)	X
		Instability in grid, reduce inertia – Basu, Staino, and Basu (2014), Luo, Shi, and Wang (2020), Zhang et al. (2020), Đaković et al. (2020), Nobela, Bansal, and Justo (2019), Rona and Güler (2015), Beza and Bongiorno (2019), Jiang, Karimirad, and Moan (2014), Simão et al. (2017), Tharakan and Panigrahi (2017), Yang et al. (2022)	X	X	X	X
Transmission	Cabling impedance controllers equipment intermediaries	Lifespan and efficiency of cables – Bantras et al. (2012), Pérez-Rúa, Das, and Cutululis (2019), Rentschler, Adam, and Chainho (2019), Jin et al. (2019)	X	X
		Reducing transmission losses – Almeida et al. (2020), Li, Yu, and Xu (2018), Wang et al. (2019), Gustavsen and Mo (2017), Cullinane et al. (2022), Jiang, Li, and Liu (2022)		X	X		X
		Losses in grid due to wind penetration – Makhloufi, Koussa, and Pillai (2017), Sultana et al. (2016), Da Rosa et al. (2016)	X	X
		Impact of impedance and harmonic resonance – Sowa, Domínguez-García, and Gomis-Bellmunt (2019), Beza and Bongiorno (2019)	X

Figure 5. Main operational losses in wind power.

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