Crosslinguistic influence in L3 acquisition across linguistic modules

Figures & data

Table 1. Predictions

Similarity	Condition	Module	Prediction
ENG = RUS ≠ NOR	Gen	Syntax–semantics	Rus > Rus–Nor > Nor
	Agree	Morphology
	Topic	Syntax
	Adv
ENG = NOR ≠ RUS	Def	Syntax–semantics	Nor > Rus–Nor > Rus
	Cop	Morphology
	DO-pro	Syntax

Note: Gen = Abstract genericity; Agree = Subject–verb agreement; Topic = Subject–verb word order; Adv = Adverb–verb word order; Def = Definiteness; Cop = obligatory copula; DO-pro = verb–pronoun word order.

Table 2. Participants’ demographics

Group (L1s)	N	Mean age	Proficiency in English (SD)
Norwegian	90	12.1	17.4 (2.1)
Russian-Norwegian	31	11.5	16.9 (1.5)
Russian	74	12.4	16.8 (1.88)

Note: Maximum proficiency in English is 20.

Figure 1. Accuracy by condition and group.

Figure 2. Accuracy by condition and group (significant differences between the groups are marked with arrows).

Table 3. Overview of predictions and results

Similarity	Condition	Module	Prediction	Result
Eng = Rus	Gen	Syntax–semantics	Rus > Rus–Nor > Nor	Rus = Rus–Nor > Nor
	Agree	Morphology		Rus > Rus–Nor > Nor
	Topic	Syntax		Rus = Rus–Nor = Nor
	Adv			Rus = Rus–Nor > Nor
Eng = Nor	Def	Syntax–semantics	Nor > Rus–Nor > Rus	Nor = Rus–Nor > Rus
	Cop	Morphology		Rus = Rus–Nor = Nor
	DO-pro	Syntax		Nor = Rus–Nor > Rus

Note: Italics indicates results in which the L3 group patterned with one of the L2 groups; bold font indicates results where all groups differed; the underlined text indicates no differences.

Figure 3. Distribution of individual accuracy scores in the Agreement condition by group.

Table

Predictors	acc
	Odds Ratios	CI	p
(Intercept)	0.28	0.14–0.57	<0.001
group[Norwegian]	0.64	0.45–0.92	0.015
group[Russian]	0.97	0.67–1.40	0.850
cond.order[agree]	1.18	0.66–2.12	0.581
cond.order[adv]	2.02	1.05–3.87	0.035
cond.order[topic]	2.81	1.42–5.56	0.003
cond.order[def]	2.83	1.47–5.44	0.002
cond.order[DO-pro]	10.97	4.66–25.86	<0.001
cond.order[cop]	7.46	3.25–17.17	<0.001
Prof	1.11	1.08–1.15	<0.001
group[Norwegian]*cond.order[agree]	0.88	0.53–1.45	0.611
group[Russian]*cond.order[agree]	3.31	1.90–5.76	<0.001
group[Norwegian]*cond.order[adv]	0.80	0.44–1.44	0.453
group[Russian]*cond.order[adv]	1.69	0.90–3.19	0.105
group[Norwegian]*cond.order[topic]	1.10	0.58–2.08	0.776
group[Russian]*cond.order[topic]	0.99	0.51–1.92	0.976
group[Norwegian]*cond.order[def]	1.86	1.01–3.43	0.045
group[Russian]*cond.order[def]	0.22	0.12–0.41	<0.001
group[Norwegian]*cond.order[DO-pro]	1.44	0.61–3.38	0.404
group[Russian]*cond.order[DO-pro]	0.39	0.17–0.92	0.031
group[Norwegian]*cond.order[cop]	2.12	0.92–4.90	0.078
group[Russian]*cond.order[cop]	1.41	0.59–3.33	0.439

Table

$emmeans
Group	emmean	SE	df	asymp.LCL	asymp.UCL
cond.order = gen:
Bilingual	0.5713	0.212	Inf	0.157	0.986
Norwegian	0.1279	0.166	Inf	−0.197	0.453
Russian	0.5357	0.173	Inf	0.197	0.874
cond.order = agree
Bilingual	0.7367	0.217	Inf	0.310	1.163
Norwegian	0.1625	0.167	Inf	−0.165	0.490
Russian	1.8976	0.201	Inf	1.504	2.291
cond.order = adv
Bilingual	1.2734	0.253	Inf	0.777	1.769
Norwegian	0. 6048	0.174	Inf	0.264	0.946
Russian	1.7631	0.210	Inf	1.352	2.174
cond.order = topic
Bilingual	1.6053	0.269	Inf	1.079	2.132
Norwegian	1.2546	0.192	Inf	0.878	1.631
Russian	1.5595	0.202	Inf	1.164	1.955
cond.order = def
Bilingual	1.6120	0.254	Inf	1.115	2.109
Norwegian	1.7915	0.194	Inf	1.411	2.172
Russian	0.0784	0.169	Inf	−0.252	0.409
cond.order = DO-pro
Bilingual	2.9667	0.380	Inf	2.223	3.711
Norwegian	2.8869	0.269	Inf	2.360	3.414
Russian	9.9991	0.233	Inf	1.543	2.455
cond.order = cop
Bilingual	2.5814	0.365	Inf	1.867	3.296
Norwegian	2.8907	0.276	Inf	2.350	3.431
Russian	2.8860	0.282	Inf	2.333	3.439

Results are given on the logit (not the response) scale.

Confidence level used: 0.95.

Table

$Contrasts
Contrasts	estimate	SE	df	z_ratio	p.value
cond.order = gen:
Bilingual – Norwegian	0.44334	0.183	Inf	2.424	0.0407
Bilingual – Russian	0.03554	0.188	Inf	0.189	0.9805
Norwegian – Russian	−0.40779	0.136	Inf	−3.003	0.0075
cond.order = agree
Bilingual – Norwegian	0.57416	0.191	Inf	3.011	0.0073
Bilingual – Russian	−1.16090	0.218	Inf	−5.333	<.0001
Norwegian – Russian	−1.73506	0.171	Inf	−10.155	<.0001
cond.order = adv
Bilingual – Norwegian	0.66854	0.233	Inf	2.864	0.0117
Bilingual – Russian	−0.48975	0.258	Inf	−2.896	0.1399
Norwegian – Russian	−1.15829	0.185	Inf	−6.250	<.0001
cond.order = topic
Bilingual – Norwegian	0.35074	0.259	Inf	1.352	0.3663
Bilingual – Russian	0.04580	0.268	Inf	0.171	0.9840
Norwegian – Russian	−0.30493	0.192	Inf	−1.589	0.2504
cond.order = def
Bilingual – Norwegian	−0.17954	0.247	Inf	−0.728	0.7469
Bilingual – Russian	1.53359	0.232	Inf	6.622	<.0001
Norwegian – Russian	1.71313	0.165	Inf	10.373	<.0001
cond.order = DO-pro
Bilingual – Norwegian	0.07984	0.392	Inf	0.204	0.9774
Bilingual – Russian	0.96762	0.385	Inf	2.514	0.0320
Norwegian – Russian	0.88778	0.272	Inf	3.262	0.0032
cond.order = cop
Bilingual – Norwegian	−0.30931	0.381	Inf	−0.812	0.6956
Bilingual – Russian	−0.30457	0.392	Inf	−0.777	0.7173
Norwegian – Russian	0.00474	0.304	Inf	0.016	0.9999

Results are given on the log odds ratio (not the response) scale.

P value adjustment: tukey method for comparing a family of 3 estimates.