https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2422-3351
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ABSTRACT
This study analyzes texts in British books, journals, newspapers, magazines, and websites alongside field research, interviews and visits to training institutions to document the history and expansion of Taijiquan (also known as Tai Chi) in the United Kingdom (UK). By applying Eichberg's “body cultures” model and suggested methodology, this paper explores the spread and change of Taijiquan, and the communication-based dynamics of its diffusion and transformation. This UK-focused research seeks to understand how the cross-cultural spread of Taijiquan contributes to cultural diffusions as part of the globalization process.
Acknowledgements
The author thanks Paul Bowman and Mina Sumaadii for their helpful advice, edits and proofreading of this article. The author also would like to express gratitude to Robin Boylorn and the two anonymous reviewers for their consideration and constructive recommendations.
Correction Statement
This article was originally published with errors, which have now been corrected in the online version. Please see Correction (https://doi.org/10.1080/14791420.2024.2336780)
Notes
1 Douglas Wile, Lost T’ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch’ing Dynasty (Albany: State University of New York, 1996); Adam Frank, Taijiquan and the Search for the Little Old Chinese Man: Understanding Identity Through Martial Arts (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
2 Baili Wang, “Tai Ji Quan: A Mark of Sign Cultural Code,” Journal of Xi’an Physical Education University 31, no. 1 (2014), 70–4.
3 Xilian Sun, Xiaohui Yu, and Linqi Mei, “Taijiquan's International Publicity and China's Soft Power Promotion,” Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education 42, no. 6 (2008), 72–5; Xiangquan Yang and Xiangguo Yang, “Thoughts on Dissemination of Taijiquan's Internationalization,” Journal of Tianjin Institute of Physical Education 19, no. 2 (2004), 62–5; Nan Jiang, Qinchao Liang and Yuan Li, “Application of Taijiquan Cultural Symbols in Construction of China's National Image,” Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education 50, no. 1 (2016), 54–8.
4 Zhaoyang Chang, “Theoretical Research and Problem Solving of Taijiquan Culture Overseas,” Journal of Xi’an Physical Education University 35, no. 3 (2018), 338–44; Youkuan Shi, “The Practice in the International Communication of Sports Culture and Concept Innovation,” China Sport Science 33, no. 05 (2013),13–24+73; Jiyuan Li and Zhiyu Guo, “Culturally Expounding on the Spreading Phenomenon of Taiji,” Journal of Xi’an Physical Education University 27, no. 2 (2010), 186–9.
5 Qinghua Song and Guoqing Shen, “International Communication Strategies of Tai Chi under China's National Cultural Strategy of ‘One Belt and One Road,’” Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education 52, no. 03 (2018), 61–6; Feng Ren, “Cross-Culture Communication of Taiji Based on Skopos Theory,” Journal of Shenyang Sport University 33, no. 1 (2014), 137–40.
6 Baofeng Zhu, “The Research of English of Taijiquan,” Sports Culture Guide, no. 7 (2014), 188–91; Suxiang Yang, “The Communication of Tai Chi in America: An Empirical Study Based on American Mass Media Corpus,” China Sport Science 37, no. 4 (2017), 68–78; Tao Li and Xiujie Ma, “'The Translation Evolution of Taijiquan Westward Propagation and The Promotion of Chinese Cultural Soft Power,’” Jiangxi Social Sciences 37, no. 4 (2017), 242–9.
7 Jingjing Zhang, “Research on the Spread of Taijiquan in Japan” (Master's thesis, Chengdu Sport University, 2014); Junkang Guan, “The Spread of Taijiquan in Pakistan” (Master's thesis, Shandong Sport University, 2014); Jie Zhang, “The Spread and Cultural Influence of Tai Chi in the United States” (PhD diss., Beijing Sport University, 2012).
8 Xiujie Ma, “The Empirical Research of Tai Chi Chuan's International Spread based on the Platform of Confucius Institute,” Journal of Handan University 26, no. 2 (2016), 88–92+105; Yufang Zhou, “The Path Exploration of to Spread Martial Arts Rai Chi on Platform of Confucius Institute,” Sports Culture Guide, no. 1 (2015), 199–202.
9 Xiu Li, Guoliang Yang, and Qun Wang, “The Spreading and Development of Tai Chi Chuan in Malaysia,” The Journal of Fighting (Sports Forum) 3, no. 5 (2011), 85–7; Tao Meng, “The Research on the Dissemination of Chinese Wushu in US under Cross-cultural Background” (PhD diss., Shanghai University of Sport, 2013).
10 Wong Kiew Kit, The Complete Book of Tai Chi Chuan: A Comprehensive Guide to the Principles and Practice (Kehad: Cosmos, 2016).
11 Catherine Fetherstone and Li Wen, “The Benefits of Tai Chi as a Self Management Strategy to Improve Health in People with Chronic Conditions,” Journal of Nursing and Healthcare of Chronic Illness 3, no. 3 (2011), 155–64.
12 Roger Jahnke, Linda Larkey and Carol Rogers, “A Comprehensive Review of Health Benefits of Tai Chi and Qigong,” American Journal of Health Promotion 24, no. 6 (2010), 1–25.
13 Henning Eichberg, Body Cultures: Essays on Sport, Space and Identity (London: Routledge, 1998).
14 Pirkko Markula and Michael Silk, Qualitative Research for Physical Culture (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
15 Michael Atkinson, “Parkour, Anarcho-Environmentalism and Poesis,” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 33, no. 2 (2009), 169–94.
16 Susan Brownell, Training the Body for China: Sports in the Moral Order of the People's Republic (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995).
17 Henning Eichberg “Force Against Force: Configurations of Martial Art in European and Indonesian Cultures,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 18, no. 2 (1983), 33–66.
18 Jennings, George. “From the Calendar to the Flesh: Movement, Space, and Identity in a Mexican Body Culture,” Societies, 8, no. 3 (2018), 66.
19 With its competing histories, modalities and philosophies, Taijiquan includes different family styles (Chen, Yang, Wu (武), Wu (吴), Sun) and their various combinations. The 24-form Taijiquan, also known as the simplified Taijiquan, was organized by the National Sports Committee of China (now the General Administration of sport of China) in 1956 to organize Taijiquan experts. It is based on the Yang family style Taijiquan and includes 24 movements (forms). Compared with the other traditional Taijiquan routines, the content is more concise, the movements are simplified and standardized. Therefore, they were more suitable for all age groups and easier to popularize.
20 Leslie Sklair, “Globalization,” in Sociology: The Key Concepts, ed. John. Scott (London: Routledge, 2006), 76–79.
21 Victor Roudometof, “Transnationalism, Cosmopolitanism and Glocalization,” Current Sociology, 53, no. 1 (2005) 113–35.
22 Mimi Sheller and John Urry, “The New Mobilities Paradigm,” Environment and Planning A, 38, no. 2 (2006) 207–26.
23 Anthony Elliot, Reinvention (London: Routledge, 2013).
24 Henning Eichberg, “How to Study Body Culture: Observing Human Practice,” Idrottsforum 6, no. 6 (2007), 1–12.
25 This multimodal design included: 1. Starting with the 50 issues of Tai Chi Union for Great Britain magazine Tai Chi Chuan & Oriental Arts to identify some of the most important figures in British Tai Chi circle. 2. Referring to the “Meet the Teacher” column on the website of the Tai Chi Union for Great Britain to further study British communicators of Tai Chi. 3. Author interviews with Liming Yue and Faye Li Yip to introduce the development of British Taijiquan and the important local figures in the spread of British Taijiquan. 4. The key communicators of British Taijiquan were identified. The list included: Chan Kam Lee, Chee Soo, Gerda Geddes, Ian Cameron, Paul Crompton, John Kells, Rose Li, Chu King-Hong, Lam Kam Chuen, Dan Docherty, Gary Wragg, Danny Connor, Linda Chase Broda, Michael Tse, Marnix Wells, Ronnie Robinson, Janson Chan, Faye Li Yip, Yue Liming, Adam Mizner, John Bolwell, Peter Ballam, Anthony Ulatowski, Mark Peters, Barry (Man) McGinlay, and Kam Lau.
26 The author visited local overseas Chinese organizations and also visited some Tai Chi schools and clubs in cities such as Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Birmingham, London, Manchester, etc. in 2012. The visited sites included: Glasgow: Practical Tai Chi Chuan, Chiron Tai Chi & Qigong, Chen Tai Chi Chuan Scotland, Tai Chi & Qigong Classes; Edinburgh: Five Winds School, Practical Tai Chi Chuan Edinburgh, Wenli Taichi Qigong School; Liverpool: Kam Lau School of Tai Chi Chuan, Yang Style Tai Chi School; Birmingham: Kai Ming Association for Taijiquan, Cloud Gate Tai Chi & Qigong, Wu's Tai Chi Chuan Academy, Mei Quan Academy of Tai Chi, Tai Chi Life School; London: London South Bank University Confucius Institute; Manchester: Chen Style Tai Chi Centre, Lishi Tai Chi Classes.
27 Alexandra Ryan, “Globalization and the “Internal Alchemy” in Chinese Martial Arts: The Transmission of Taijiquan to Britain,” East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal 2, no. 4 (2008), 525–43.
28 The author received a one-year fellowship from the China Scholarship Council from 2018 to 2019 to conduct the study of Chinese martial arts in the UK. Under the guidance of his supervisor Paul Bowman and his links to the Martial Arts Studies Research Network, the author gathered information about the development of Taijiquan in the UK.
29 Henning Eichberg, “Efficiency Play, Games, Competitions, Production – How to Analyse the Configurations of Sport?” Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research 72, no. 1 (2016), 5–16.
30 David Brown and Aspasia Leledaki, “Eastern Movement Forms as body-Self Transforming Cultural Practices in the West: Towards a Sociological Perspective,” Cultural Sociology 4, no. 1 (2010), 123–54.
31 This article adopts different PinYin systems for individual's names because some of them were from Hong Kong and others were from the PRC.
32 Chan Kam Lee was a Taoist teacher who brought Taoist Arts to the West. According to Chee Soo, Chan Kam Lee established a Taoist Arts school in Red Lion Square in Holborn in 1930 teaching Lee-style t’ai chi ch’uan, Qigong, Traditional Chinese Medicine and Feng Shou “Hand of the Wind” Kungfu and used his knowledge of Chinese Medicine and Herbalism to adapt the Ch’ang Ming diet for Westerners. Chan Kam Lee is referenced in several books written by Chee Soo and published by HarperCollins but there is no corroboration of his existence independent of Chee Soo's accounts.
33 Amazon, “Chee-Soo,” https://www.amazon.co.uk/Chee-Soo/e/B001KIFC04%3Fref=dbs_a_mng_rwt_scns_share (accessed August 25, 2019).
34 Ray Austin (1932–) is an English television and film director, television writer, novelist and former stunt performer and actor who has worked in both the United Kingdom and the United States.
35 Alexandra, “Globalization,” 525–43.
36 Taiji Forum, “Tai Chi Interview – Gerda Geddes,” https://taiji-forum.com/tai-chi-taiji/tai-chi-interviews/gerda-geddes/ (accessed August 25, 2019).
37 Choy Hak Pang (1886–1957), he had learned the Yang style of Tai Chi from the famous third generation master Yang Cheng Fu, as well as his student Chen Wei Ming.
38 Taiji Forum, “Tai Chi Interview – Paul Crompton,” https://taiji-forum.com/tai-chi-taiji/tai-chi-interviews/tai-chi-interview-paul-crompton/ (accessed August 25, 2019).
39 Paul Crompton's Taijiquan publications include Tai Chi Workbook (1987), Tai Chi for Two: The Practice of Push Hands (1989), Tai Chi Combat (1991), The Art of Tai Chi (1993), The Elements of Tai Chi (1994), Tai Chi. A Practical Introduction to the Therapeutic Effects of the Discipline (1996), Tai Chi: A Practical Introduction (1998), Tai Chi: An Introductory Guide to the Chinese Art of Movement (2000), Tai Chi for Beginners (2003).
40 Ronnie Robinson, “An Interview with Gary Wragg,” Tai Chi Chuan & Oriental Arts 30, winter (2011),18–24.
41 Liang Tung Tsai (1900–2002), was a senior disciple of Cheng Man Ching, but also studied Taijiquan with various other teachers, such as Li Shou Chen and Hsiung Yang Ho (disciples of Yang Shao Hou) and Chang Ching Ling (Disciple of Yang Ban Hou).
42 Chu Gin Soon (1932–2019), was a disciple of Yang Shou-chung, he moved to the United States in 1968 and opened the Gin Soon Tai Chi Club in Boston, Massachusetts in 1969 where he taught the traditional Yang style of Taijiquan for 50 years.
43 Yang Shou-chung (1910–1985) started learning the family-style from his father Yang Cheng Fu when he was eight and also learned from his famous uncle Yang Shao Hou (1862–1929). After the death of his father he became the successor in the Yang Family lineage.
44 Taiji Forum, “Tai Chi Interview – Ian Cameron,” https://taiji-forum.com/tai-chi-taiji/tai-chi-interviews/tai-chi-interview-ian-cameron/ (accessed August 25, 2019).
45 Cheng Tin Hung (1930–2005) was an influential Taijiquan master and the founder of “Wudang Taijiquan”. Taiji Forum, “Tai Chi Interview –Gary Wragg,” https://taiji-forum.com/tai-chi-taiji/tai-chi-interviews/tai-chi-interview-gary-wragg/ (accessed August 25, 2019).
46 International Tai Chi Chuan Association (ITCCA), “Master Chu King Hung,” https://www.itcca.com/en/original-yang-style/master-chu-king-hung (accessed August 25, 2019).
47 Rose Li, (1914–2001). Robert Smith, Martial Musings: A Portrayal of Martial Arts in the 20th Century (Erie, PA: Via Media Publishing, 2013), Kindle Edition.
48 Lam Kam Chuen (1949–). http://www.lamkamchuen.com/News_%26_Events/News_%26_Events.html (accessed August 25, 2019).
49 Cheng Man-Ching (1900–1975), he was one of the first who taught Taijiquan in the West and his Taijiquan style is spread all over the world. He learned Taijiquan in the tradition of the classical Yang style from Yang Chengfu in Shanghai. After the death of his teacher Yang Chengfu in 1935, Cheng Man Ching developed the so-called “short form,” in which 37 positions are counted, from the well-known long form with 85 or 108 positions, depending on how they are counted.
50 Timothy J. Nulty. “Gong and Fa in Chinese Martial Arts,” Martial Arts Studies 3 (2017), 50–63.
51 Taiji Forum, “Tai Chi Interview – Gerda Geddes.”
52 Taiji Forum, “Tai Chi Interview – Paul Crompton.”
53 Smith, Martial Musings: A Portrayal of Martial Arts.
54 Taiji Forum, “Tai Chi Interview – Paul Crompton.”
55 Ronnie Robinson, “An Interview with Gary Wragg.”
56 Bey Logan, “Daniel in the Dragon's Den,” Traditional Karate 2, no. 2 (1988), 16–24.
57 Ronnie Robinson, “Lina Chase Broda,” Tai Chi Chuan & Oriental Arts 29, summer (2011), 21–7.
58 Taiji Forum, “In Memoriam Ronnie Robinson,” https://taiji-forum.com/memoriam-ronnie-robinson/ (accessed August 25, 2019).
59 David A. Palmer, Qigong Fever: Body, Science and Utopia in China (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).
60 Tse Qigong, “Grandmaster Michael Tse,” https://www.tseqigongcentre.com/michaeltse.html (accessed August 25, 2019).
61 Infinite Arts, “Jason Chan,” https://www.theinfinitearts.com/team/jason-chan/ (accessed August 25, 2019).
62 Ronnie Robinson, “An interview with Faye Li Yi,” Tai Chi Chuan and Oriental Arts 43, Autumn, (2013), 6–11.
63 Tai Chi Centre, “Grandmaster Liming Yue,” http://www.taichicentre.com/masterliming.php. (accessed August 25, 2019).
64 Li Deyin (1938–) in one of China's most famous Taijiquan Masters and creator of a number of modern-day competition routines such as 24 Step Taijiquan, 48 Step Taijiquan, Taiji Kungfu Fan. He is also the highest authority on 24-step simplified Yang style Taijiquan, 88-Step Traditional Yang Style Taijiquan, Wudang Taiji Sword and 32-step Yang Style Taijijian.
65 George Jennings, “Transmitting Health Philosophies through the Traditionalist Chinese Martial Arts in the UK,” Societies 4, no. 4 (2014), 712–36.
66 Xiujie Ma, Wei Wang, “Dynamic Analysis of International Researches on Tai Ji Quan,” Journal of Handan University 28, no. 1 (2018), 48–64.
67 Chenchen Wang and others, “A Randomized Trial of Tai Chi for Fibromyalgia,” New England Journal of Medicine 363, no. 8 (2010), 743–54; Fuzhong Li and others, “Tai Chi and Postural Stability in Patients with Parkinson's Disease,” New England Journal of Medicine 366, no. 6 (2012), 511–19.
68 Paul Bowman, Theorizing Bruce Lee: Film-Fantasy-Fighting-Philosophy (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010).
69 Ma, Xiujie, Min Wu, Zizheng Yu, and Chuanyin Jiang. “An Empirical Study of the Understandings of Chinese Martial Arts Symbols Among German University Students,” Journal of Martial Arts Research 2, no. 1 (2019), 19.
70 Paul Bowman, Beyond Bruce Lee: Chasing the Dragon through Film, Philosophy, and Popular Culture (London: Wallflower Press, 2013).
71 Tao Meng and Zhonglin Cai, “Dissemination Process and Cultural Clues: Exploration of the History of Chinese Wushu Dissemination in the America,” China Sport Science 33, no. 10 (2013), 78–88.
72 In “Globalization and the ‘Internal Alchemy’ in Chinese Martial Arts,” 525–543, Alexandra Ryan lists five technical components that include “qi-based” exercises (Qigong) as a fifth component in addition to the four listed here. In the PRC, Qigong is completely separate from Taijiquan, so the author decided not to list it.
73 Wang Gang, Guo Huashuai. “Taiji as a Typical ‘Water’ Culture,” Journal of Wuhan Institute of Physical Education, 43, no. 3 (2009), 81–6.
74 Holly Blake and Helen Hawley, “Effects of Tai Chi exercise on physical and psychological health of older people,” Current Ageing Science, 5, no. 1 (2011), 19–27.
75 Tai Chi Union, “Instructors Grades,” https://www.taichiunion.com/instructor-grades/ (accessed August 25, 2019).
76 Alexandra, Ryan “Globalization,” 525–43.
77 George Jennings, “Transmitting Health Philosophies through the Traditionalist Chinese Martial Arts in the UK,” Societies 4, no. 4 (2014), 712–36.