Performance of women-managed plots compared to men-managed plots among smallholder maize farmers in western and central Ethiopia

Figures & data

Table 1. Adoption of MAT categories

Package Code	D1 (ML diversification)	D0 No ML diversification	F1 Fertilizer	F0 No fertilizer	S1 SWC	S0 No SWC	N	Percent
D0F0S0		✓		✓		✓	77	4.6
D1F0S0	✓			✓		✓	60	3.58
D0F1S0^3		✓	✓			✓	407	24.31
D0F0S1A		✓		✓	✓		21	1.25
D1F1S0	✓		✓			✓	636	37.99
D1F0S1	✓			✓	✓		29	1.73
D0F1S1		✓	✓		✓		153	9.14
D1F1S1	✓		✓		✓		291	17.38

D, F and S refer to maize-legume diversification, chemical fertilisers and soil and water conservation measures. Subscript “1” denotes the adoption of the MATs, while “0” denotes non-adoption. The number of maize plots is 1624.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the variables used in the model based on MAT adoption status

Variables	D0F0S0	D1 F0S0	D0 F1S0	D1 F1S0	D0 F1S1	D1 F1S1
Outcome Variables
Maize yield per ha	2280	2684**	3897***	3608***	3801***	3847***
Maize marginal returns	16,713	19,775**	26,106***	23,674***	25,678***	25,332***
Explanatory Variables
Gender head	0.857	0.883	0.845	0.923**	0.869	0.856
Age head	44.78	45.82	44.74	43.57	44.77	43.49
Education head	3.987	3.733	3.518	4.041	3.85	4.271
Household size	6.286	6.65	6.032	6.256	6.209	6.134
Farm size	1.348	1.447	1.367	1.437	1.57	1.699**
TLU	3.403	4.632**	4.255	4.532***	5.546***	5.097**
Maize seed per ha	27.96	22.29***	24.55**	21.83***	24.23***	21.38***
Access to credit (yes = = 1)	0.61	0.65	0.855***	0.635	0.752**	0.797***
Government support (yes = 1)	0.636	0.683	0.597	0.514**	0.353***	0.632
Plot Size	0.447	0.342**	0.394	0.415	0.570**	0.540*
Plot distance from home (min)	13.42	10.97	18.05	15.75	30.38***	17.29
Women managed plot (yes = 1)	0.117	0.083	0.12	0.058**	0.111	0.096
Jointly managed plot	0.792	0.883	0.803	0.890**	0.621***	0.777
Men managed plot (yes = 1)	0.091	0.017*	0.076	0.052	0.268***	0.127
Good fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.351	0.45	0.452	0.604***	0.464	0.375
Medium fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.584	0.483	0.491	0.374***	0.497	0.601
Low fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.065	0.05	0.057	0.022**	0.039	0.024*
Region (Oromia = 1)	0.805	0.650**	0.575***	0.321***	0.621***	0.488***
Region (SNNP = 1)	0.195	0.35	0.425***	0.679***	0.379***	0.512***
Rainfall Shock
Total rainfall of the growing season	773.2	879.1***	1011***	1006***	954.7***	942.8***
Rainfall shock index	0.62	0.647	0.619	0.595	0.512***	0.552**
Instrumental Variables
Total Rainfall 2016 (ln)	802.78	883.55***	991.94***	986.36***	925.05***	926.21***
Distance to input market	1.57	1.67	1.51	1.48	1.5	1.302***
Distance to nearest market	8.221	7.267	6.369***	6.972*	5.948***	6.916**
Awareness of project activities (yes = 1)	0.026	0.067	0.133***	0.230***	0.242***	0.392***
Group membership	0.065	0.183**	0.317***	0.219***	0.333***	0.399***
N	77	60	407	636	153	291

1.

1. D0F0S0 is the reference category. Every group is tested against the reference category. *** P < 0.01, ** P < 0.05, * P < 0.1.

1. D0F0S0 is the reference category. Every group is tested against the reference category. *** P < 0.01, ** P < 0.05, * P < 0.1.

Table 3. Some descriptive statistics of gendered plot level characteristics

Variable	D0F0S0	D1F0S0	D0F1S0	D1F1S0	D0F1S1	D1F1S1	Total
Women-managed plots
Maize yield	1765	2843	3830***	3307**	3748***	3665***	3493
Maize returns	12,679	21,061	25,597***	21,200**	26,400***	24,438**	23,387
Plot size	0.439	0.262**	0.398**	0.355***	0.735	0.449	0.447
Plot distance from home (min)	6.44	5	12.65	9.92	8.24	24.64	13.1
Women managed plot (yes = 1)	0.117	0.083	0.12	0.058**	0.111	0.096	0.089
Good fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.333	0.6	0.429	0.622	0.412	0.393	0.47
Medium fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.556	0.4	0.469	0.324	0.588	0.571	0.469
Pesticide use(yes = 1)	0.00	0.00	0.408**	0.378**	0.412**	0.357**	0.352
Manure use (yes = 1)	0.778	0.8	0.345***	0.243***	0.353**	0.393**	0.345
Men-managed plots
Maize yield	1915	2800	3595***	3353**	3788**	3569**	3504
Maize returns	13,804	21,620	23,761*	21,488*	25,088*	20,258	22,281
Plot size	0.536	0.25	0.569	0.561	0.516	0.538	0.542
Plot distance from home (min)	43.57	10	25.61	17.18	48.17	30.78	31.93
Men managed plot (yes = 1)	0.091	0.017*	0.076	0.052	0.268***	0.127	0.092
Good fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.429	0.00	0.387	0.667	0.659	0.568	0.567
Medium fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.571	0.00	0.548	0.303	0.268	0.405	0.387
Pesticide use(yes = 1)	0.00	0.00	0.387**	0.091	0.073	0.135	0.152
Manure use (yes = 1)	0.286	0.00	0.00	0.121	0.219	0.189	0.147
Jointly-managed plots
Maize yield	2398	2642	3936***	3642***	3816***	3915***	3676
Maize returns	17,642	19,421	26,405***	23,963***	25,804***	26,274***	24,618
Plot size	0.408	0.355	0.377	0.41	0.564**	0.552**	0.435
Plot distance from home (min)	10.98	11.47	18.14	16.04	26.66**	14.17	16.58
Jointly managed plot	0.792	0.883	0.803	0.890**	0.621***	0.777	0.818
Good fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.344	0.453	0.462*	0.599***	0.389	0.341	0.489
Medium fertile soil (yes = 1)	0.59	0.491	0.489	0.382***	0.579	0.637	0.48
Pesticide use(yes = 1)	0.016	0.057	0.199***	0.175***	0.337***	0.319***	0.205
Manure use (yes = 1)	0.492	0.453	0.171***	0.133***	0.358*	0.199***	0.199

Table 4. Marginal effects of the determinants of combinations of MATs

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
Explanatory variables	D1F0S0	D0F1S0	D1F1S0	D0F1S1	D1F1S1
Gender head	−0.011	−0.000	0.131*	0.002	−0.113**
	(0.025)	(0.060)	(0.070)	(0.043)	(0.047)
Age head	0.000	0.000	−0.000	0.000	−0.001
	(0.000)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.001)
Education head	0.000	−0.003	0.002	−0.002	0.003
	(0.002)	(0.003)	(0.004)	(0.002)	(0.003)
Household size (ln)	0.020	−0.015	−0.003	−0.025	0.011
	(0.018)	(0.036)	(0.039)	(0.023)	(0.031)
Farm size (ln)	−0.032*	−0.058	0.070	−0.035	0.087***
	(0.018)	(0.041)	(0.043)	(0.025)	(0.033)
TLU (ln)	0.005	−0.017	0.026	0.031**	−0.026
	(0.009)	(0.021)	(0.022)	(0.013)	(0.017)
Maize seed (kg/ha) (ln)	−0.029***	0.050*	−0.057**	0.030	−0.046**
	(0.008)	(0.026)	(0.025)	(0.020)	(0.021)
Access to credit (yes = 1)	−0.010	0.176***	−0.167***	0.008	0.013
	(0.011)	(0.028)	(0.027)	(0.016)	(0.023)
Government support (yes = 1)	0.019*	0.036	−0.020	−0.074***	0.019
	(0.011)	(0.023)	(0.025)	(0.015)	(0.020)
Plot distance from home (min) (ln)	−0.009	0.008	−0.028**	0.025***	0.005
	(0.006)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.008)	(0.010)
Women managed plot (yes = 1)	0.285***	−0.659	0.224	0.241	0.014
	(0.109)	(0.457)	(0.479)	(0.233)	(0.355)
Jointly managed plot (yes = 1)	−0.009	−0.154**	0.165*	−0.020	0.062
	(0.037)	(0.078)	(0.091)	(0.038)	(0.058)
Good fertile soil (yes = 1)	−0.028	−0.017	0.112	−0.046	−0.019
	(0.029)	(0.077)	(0.089)	(0.052)	(0.073)
Medium fertile soil (yes = 1)	−0.017	−0.012	0.087	−0.004	−0.060
	(0.027)	(0.074)	(0.086)	(0.050)	(0.072)
Pesticide use (yes = 1)	−0.047**	−0.047	0.000	0.015	0.153***
	(0.023)	(0.035)	(0.039)	(0.022)	(0.030)
Manure use (yes = 1)	0.029***	−0.068**	−0.103***	0.060***	0.048**
	(0.010)	(0.028)	(0.031)	(0.017)	(0.024)
Mean plot distance from home	0.008	0.006	0.012	−0.006	−0.016
	(0.008)	(0.019)	(0.020)	(0.012)	(0.016)
Mean women managed plot	−0.291**	0.726	0.025	−0.363	−0.183
	(0.114)	(0.462)	(0.486)	(0.241)	(0.359)
Mean jointly managed plot	0.049	0.189**	0.031	−0.119***	−0.196***
	(0.041)	(0.090)	(0.098)	(0.042)	(0.064)
Mean good fertile plot	0.008	−0.052	−0.074	0.059	0.077
	(0.039)	(0.098)	(0.111)	(0.067)	(0.100)
Mean medium fertile plot	−0.004	−0.089	−0.188*	0.036	0.251**
	(0.037)	(0.096)	(0.109)	(0.066)	(0.099)
Total rainfall growing season	−0.030	0.151**	0.308***	−0.040	−0.270***
	(0.029)	(0.063)	(0.073)	(0.039)	(0.059)
Rainfall shock index	0.038*	0.029	0.084*	−0.112***	−0.051
	(0.022)	(0.044)	(0.044)	(0.033)	(0.036)
Oromia (yes = 1)	0.032**	0.168***	−0.247***	0.074***	−0.067**
	(0.013)	(0.029)	(0.032)	(0.023)	(0.028)
Distance to input market	0.012*	0.035**	0.005	0.014	−0.067***
	(0.007)	(0.016)	(0.018)	(0.012)	(0.016)
Distance to nearest market	0.015*	−0.036*	0.011	−0.042***	0.026
	(0.009)	(0.019)	(0.020)	(0.013)	(0.016)
Participated in project extension activities (yes = 1)	−0.027	−0.085***	0.023	0.029	0.115***
	(0.018)	(0.031)	(0.030)	(0.019)	(0.021)
Group membership	−0.007	−0.026	−0.004	0.017	0.056***
	(0.013)	(0.027)	(0.028)	(0.017)	(0.021)
Observations	1624	1624	1624	1624	1624

Standard errors in parentheses. D0F0S0 is the reference category. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01

Table 5. Impacts of multiple agricultural technologies (MATs) on maize yield (the full sample)

Outcome	MATs		Adoption Status		ATT
Variable	Choice	N	A	C	(A-C)
Maize yield (kg/ha)	D1F0S0	60	2569(114)	2352(134)	217(176)
	D0F1S0	407	3625(47)	2802(74)	833(87)***
	D1F1S0	636	3321(41)	2372(54)	949(68)***
	D0F1S1	153	3595(110)	2544(115)	1051(159)***
	D1F1S1	291	3618(77)	1999(61)	1619(98)***
	D1F0S0	60	18,753(9129)	18,142(1280)	611(1572)
Maize	D0F1S0	407	23,957(328)	22,574(713)	1383(785)*
income	D1F1S0	636	21,153(276)	18,670(513)	2483(582)***
Birr/ha	D0F1S1	153	23,742(778)	19,474(1071)	4268(1324)***
	D1F1S1	291	23,182(482)	14,848(523)	8334(711)***

We report actual outcome (A) with the adoption of the different combinations of MATs and counterfactual outcome (C) without the MATs and difference between actual and counterfactual outcomes as impact (ATT). The standard errors in parenthesis. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. Legumes equivalent were added to the maize yield.

Table 6. Gendered impacts of multiple agricultural technologies on maize yield

Outcome	MATs	Women-managed plots			Men-managed plots			Jointly-managed plots
Variable	Category	A	C	ATTa (A-C)	A	C	ATTb (A-C)	A	C	ATTc (A-C)	ATTa-ATTb	ATTa-ATTc
Maize Yield (kg/ha)	D1F0S0	2743	2214	529	NA	NA	NA	2523	2399	124	NA	405
		(558)	(631)	(843)				(117)	(139)	(182)		(676)
	D0F1S0	3667	2316	1351***	3444	2154	1290***	3635	2936	699***	61	652***
		(143)	(172)	(131)	(189)	(217)	(287)	(51)	(84)	(98)	(232)	(194)
	D1F1S0	3026	1802	1224***	3313	1899	1414***	3341	2437	904***	-190	320*
		(130)	(169)	(213)	(250)	(239)	(345)	(43)	(57)	(72)	(258)	(192)
	D0F1S1	3769	2199	1560***	3455	2257	1198***	3624	2729	895***	371	675
		(315)	(299)	(435)	(249)	(166)	(299)	(131)	(160)	(207)	(496)	(431)
	D1F1S1	3532	1540	1992***	3348	1613	1735***	3673	2119	1554***	257	438*
		(314)	(120)	(336)	(242)	(119)	(270)	(82)	(73)	(109)	(378)	(265)
Maize net income (Birr/ha)	D1F0S0	19771	16214	3557	NA	NA	NA	18395	18609	(-)214		3770
		(3920)	(4595)	(6040)				(956)	(1373)	(1673)		(6050)
	D0F1S0	23506	18450	5056**	22359	16864	5495**	24176	23733	443	-439	4613**
		(997)	(1714)	(1983)	(1270)	(1991)	(2362)	(361)	(817)	(893)	(2042)	(1889)
	D1F1S0	18832	13420	5412***	20919	14664	6255**	21318	19247	2071***	-843	3341*
		(850)	(1554)	(1771)	(1656)	(2169)	(2729)	(288)	(549)	(620)	(2153)	(1819)
	D0F1S1	26627	16992	9635***	22140	16364	5776***	23917	21259	2658	3859	6977**
		(2307)	(2539)	(3431)	(1609)	(1292)	(2064)	(954)	(1547)	(1818)	(3481)	(3809)
	D1F1S1	21959	11303	10656***	19429	11269	8160***	23948	15873	8075***	2496	2581
		(1915)	(1027)	(2173)	(1234)	(952)	(1558)	(527)	(628)	(820)	(2260)	(1979)
	N		136			143			1267

Note. We report actual outcome with MATs (A), counterfactual outcome without MATs scenario (C) and difference between the actual and counterfactual scenarios as average treatment effect on the treated (ATT). Standard errors in parenthesis . NA refers to non-applicable because of too few observations. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

Table 7. Gendered impacts of MATs on maize yield by rainfall endowment

	Rainfall-deficit plots
Outcome	MAT	WMPs			MMPs			JMPs
Variable	Category	A	C	ATT(A-C)	A	C	ATT(A-C)	A	C	ATT(A-C)
	D1F0S0	2433	2608	(-)175	NA	NA	NA	2521	2328	193
		(443)	(922)	(480)				(119)	(135)	(183)
Maize	D0F1S0	3107	1937	1170***	2706	1639	1067***	3253	2475	778***
		(165)	(183)	(116)	(114)	(201)	(193)	(54)	(83)	(75)
Yield	D1F1S0	3043	1471	1572***	3179	1774	1405***	3219	2162	1057***
		(169)	(185)	(162)	(289)	(230)	(215)	(49)	(58)	(56)
(kg/ha)	D0F1S1	2993	1449	1544***	3407	2185	1222***	3151	2255	896***
		(205)	(297)	(415)	(289)	(183)	(337)	(139)	(139)	(173)
	D1F1S1	3039	1342	1698***	3423	1592	1831***	3530	1993	1537***
		(389)	(111)	(380)	(262)	(123)	(251)	(88)	(76)	(94)
	D1F0S0	16,876	17,796	(-)920	NA	NA	NA	18224	17,267	957
		(3025)	(6578)	(3554)				(956)	(1111)	(1541)
Maize	D0F1S0	19,738	13,687	6051***	17,884	11,479	6405***	21,678	18,560	3118***
		(1129)	(1416)	(948)	(874)	(1568)	(1461)	(397)	(697)	(633)
Income	D1F1S0	18,871	10,230	8641***	19,761	13,170	6591***	20,497	16,174	4323***
		(1066)	(1476)	(1294)	(1864)	(1890)	(1526)	(328)	(486)	(446)
(Birr/ha)	D0F1S1	21,261	10,224	11,037***	21,714	15,330	6384***	20,779	16,595	4184***
		(1560)	(2275)	(3077)	(1862)	(1321)	(2254)	(1065)	(1152)	(1408)
	D1F1S1	17,568	9490	8078***	19,761	11,056	8705***	22,820	14,772	8048***
		(1914)	(943)	(2025)	(1310)	(978)	(1467)	(538)	(648)	(698)
	N		72			110			889
	Rainfall surplus plots
Outcome	MATs	WMPs			MMPs			JMPs
Variable	Category	A	C	ATT(A-C)	A	C	ATT(A-C)	A	C	ATT(A-C)
	D1F0S0	3207	1623	1584				2529	2670	(-)141
		(1473)	(923)	(2395)				(353)	(436)	(612)
Maize	D0F1S0	4021	2555	1466***	4232	2704	1528***	4261	3691	570***
		(182)	(248)	(251)	(239)	(346)	(204)	(71)	(152)	(142)
Yield	D1F1S0	3000	2286	714**	3734	2293	1441**	3614	3052	562***
		(210)	(277)	(274)	(497)	(692)	(549)	(81)	(120)	(88)
(kg/ha)	D0F1S1	4642	3044	1598***	3732	2676	1056*	4513	3621	892**
		(473)	(360)	(445)	(234)	(357)	(489)*	(198)	(331)	(388)
	D1F1S1	4573	1958	2615***	2727	1781	946	4454	2806	1648***
		(337)	(244)	(490)	(564)	(487)	(433)	(168)	(183)	(198)
	D1F0S0	24,113	13,841	10,272	NA	NA	NA	19047	23,730	(-)4683
		(9737)	(8483)	(18,219)				(2924)	(4959)	(6113)
Maize	D0F1S0	25,892	21,466	4426*	27,132	22,608	4524**	28,264	32,201	(-)3937***
		(1297)	(2519)	(2284)	(1766)	(3191)	(1899)	(516)	(1554)	(1442)***
Income	D1F1S0	18,776	18,099	677	24,539	19,335	5204	23,153	26,112	(-)2960***
		(1442)	(2811)	(2400)	(3465)	(6810)	(5246)	(555)	(1261)	(989)
(Birr/ha)	D0F1S1	32,664	24,607	8057*	24,623	22,395	2228	29,812	30,022	(-)210
		(3591)	(3003)	(3575)	(1611)	(3696)	(4408)	(1402)	(3437)	(3597)
	D1F1S1	31,229	15,130	16,099**	16,688	13,017	3671	30,105	21,880	8225***
		(2299)	(2037)	(3387)	(3918)	(3876)	(3439)	(1312)	(1664)	(1893)
			64		33			378

We report actual outcome with multiple MATs (A), counterfactual outcome without MATs scenario (C) and difference between the actual and counterfactual scenarios as average treatment effect on the treated (ATT). Standard errors are in parenthesis. NA refers to non-applicable because of data limitations. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.