Income elasticity of demand for tanning bed usage: evidence from survey data

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary statistics of tanning variables for all respondents by year, restricted and weighted sample.

Variable	Year	Obs	Mean	St. Dev.
User	2005	23,182	0.143	0.350
	2008	16,368	0.149	0.356
	2010	21,831	0.053	0.224
	2013	28,028	0.040	0.196
	2015	27,521	0.034	0.181
	Total	116,930	0.080	0.271
Usage	2005	3,176	10.402	23.742
	2008	2,350	9.247	21.281
	2010	986	19.412	32.685
	2013	1,072	18.338	31.319
	2015	912	16.874	27.621
	Total	8,494	12.647	25.921

Notes: User is whether respondent used a tanning bed in the past year. Usage is the self-reported number of times a respondent used a tanning bed in the past year.

Table 2. Summary statistics of tanning variables for women by year, restricted and weighted sample.

Variable	Year	Obs	Mean	St. Dev.
User	2005	12,973	0.171	0.377
	2008	9,067	0.179	0.383
	2010	12,002	0.082	0.274
	2013	15,321	0.062	0.242
	2015	15,040	0.052	0.221
	Total	64,403	0.105	0.307
Usage	2005	2,043	13.493	28.236
	2008	1,506	11.359	24.242
	2010	784	20.918	34.078
	2013	851	19.343	32.524
	2015	723	17.756	26.728
	Total	5,907	15.167	28.710

Notes: User is whether respondent used a tanning bed in the past year. Usage is the self-reported number of times a respondent used a tanning bed in the past year.

Table 3. Summary statistics of tanning variables for men by year, restricted and weighted sample.

Variable	Year	Obs	Mean	St. Dev.
User	2005	10,209	0.113	0.316
	2008	7,301	0.117	0.322
	2010	9,829	0.023	0.149
	2013	12,707	0.017	0.129
	2015	12,481	0.015	0.123
	Total	52,527	0.054	0.225
Usage	2005	1,133	5.427	12.165
	2008	844	5.883	14.841
	2010	202	13.852	26.256
	2013	221	14.474	25.883
	2015	189	13.733	30.460
	Total	2,589	7.470	17.865

Notes: User is whether respondent used a tanning bed in the past year. Usage is the self-reported number of times a respondent used a tanning bed in the past year.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics restricted and weighted sample.

Variable	Obs	Mean	St. Dev.	Min	Max
Primary Variables
Family Income (2015 dollars)	116,930	78,261.541	63,801.780	−1,036.769	294,686.188
Real Price Proxy (2015 dollars)	116,930	3.974	0.224	3.637	4.505
Female	116,930	0.511	0.500	0	1
Male	116,930	0.489	0.500	0	1
Age	116,930	46.218	17.477	18	85
White	116,930	0.819	0.385	0	1
Black	116,930	0.119	0.323	0	1
Other Race	116,930	0.063	0.242	0	1
Hispanic	116,930	0.139	0.345	0	1
Non-Hispanic	116,930	0.861	0.345	0	1
Health (1 = poor … 5 = excellent)	116,930	3.748	1.070	1	5
Doctoral	116,930	0.014	0.116	0	1
Professional	116,930	0.013	0.113	0	1
Masters	116,930	0.078	0.268	0	1
Bachelors	116,930	0.190	0.392	0	1
Associates	116,930	0.109	0.312	0	1
Some College	116,930	0.198	0.398	0	1
High School	116,930	0.260	0.439	0	1
Less Than High School	116,930	0.138	0.345	0	1
Control Variables
Employed	116,930	0.633	0.482	0	1
Unemployed	116,930	0.045	0.208	0	1
Out of Labor Force	116,930	0.321	0.467	0	1
Hours Worked (in last week)	116,930	25.236	21.784	0	95
Married	116,930	0.573	0.495	0	1
Living With Partner	116,930	0.033	0.178	0	1
Widowed	116,930	0.058	0.233	0	1
Divorced or Separated	116,930	0.120	0.324	0	1
Never Married	116,930	0.217	0.412	0	1
Number of Children	116,930	0.744	1.095	0	9

Table 5. OLS results for all respondents and by gender.

	All Respondents		Women		Men
	(1) User	(2) Log Usage	(3) User	(4) Log Usage	(5) User	(6) Log Usage
Log Income	0.003**	0.045**	0.004**	0.031	0.002	0.091***
	(0.001)	(0.018)	(0.002)	(0.023)	(0.001)	(0.028)
Real Price Proxy	0.115***	0.489	0.095**	0.389	0.127***	0.416
	(0.028)	(0.479)	(0.043)	(0.584)	(0.037)	(0.880)
Female	0.058***	0.458***
	(0.002)	(0.033)
Age	−0.002***	−0.009***	−0.003***	−0.014***	−0.001***	0.001
	(0.000)	(0.001)	(0.000)	(0.002)	(0.000)	(0.002)
White	0.041***	0.195***	0.067***	0.234***	0.014***	0.100
	(0.003)	(0.060)	(0.005)	(0.086)	(0.004)	(0.075)
Black	−0.034***	−0.335***	−0.048***	−0.451***	−0.019***	−0.172**
	(0.004)	(0.073)	(0.005)	(0.110)	(0.005)	(0.082)
Hispanic	−0.051***	−0.431***	−0.080***	−0.518***	−0.021***	−0.247***
	(0.003)	(0.046)	(0.004)	(0.066)	(0.003)	(0.057)
Health	0.003***	0.018	0.005***	0.011	0.002*	0.036
	(0.001)	(0.016)	(0.001)	(0.022)	(0.001)	(0.022)
Doctoral	−0.034***	−0.158	−0.072***	−0.342*	−0.020***	−0.035
	(0.006)	(0.123)	(0.011)	(0.188)	(0.007)	(0.148)
Professional	−0.032***	−0.255*	−0.066***	−0.329	−0.017**	−0.152
	(0.007)	(0.134)	(0.013)	(0.226)	(0.008)	(0.135)
Masters	−0.026***	−0.076	−0.053***	−0.124	−0.004	−0.054
	(0.004)	(0.080)	(0.007)	(0.108)	(0.006)	(0.107)
Bachelors	−0.007*	−0.065	−0.024***	−0.196**	0.003	0.096
	(0.004)	(0.066)	(0.006)	(0.090)	(0.005)	(0.079)
Associates	0.007*	0.095	0.003	0.021	0.007	0.177**
	(0.004)	(0.069)	(0.006)	(0.093)	(0.005)	(0.087)
Some College	0.012***	0.106*	0.007	0.018	0.012**	0.219***
	(0.004)	(0.063)	(0.005)	(0.088)	(0.005)	(0.076)
High School	0.002	0.097	0.005	0.090	−0.001	0.067
	(0.003)	(0.060)	(0.005)	(0.084)	(0.004)	(0.066)
Income Elasticity	0.036**	0.045**	0.040**	0.031	0.045	0.091***
	(0.015)	(0.018)	(0.018)	(0.023)	(0.027)	(0.028)
Control Variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Region Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	116,930	8,496	64,403	5,907	52,527	2,589

Robust standard errors in parentheses

* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%

Control Variables include: Employed, Unemployed, Hours Worked, Married, Living With Partner, Widowed, Divorced or Separated, and Number of Children

Table 6. Probit average marginal effects and negative binomial results for all respondents and by gender.

	All Respondents		Women		Men
	(1) User Margins	(2) Usage Neg. Bin.	(3) User Margins	(4) Usage Neg. Bin.	(5) User Margins	(6) Usage Neg. Bin.
Log Income	0.003***	0.091***	0.004**	0.062**	0.002*	0.107**
	(0.001)	(0.028)	(0.002)	(0.031)	(0.001)	(0.048)
Real Price Proxy	0.089***	0.478	0.077*	0.314	0.068**	1.029
	(0.026)	(0.712)	(0.040)	(0.768)	(0.034)	(1.341)
Female	0.057***	0.573***
	(0.002)	(0.059)
Age	−0.002***	−0.014***	−0.003***	−0.020***	−0.001***	0.000
	(0.000)	(0.002)	(0.000)	(0.002)	(0.000)	(0.003)
White	0.039***	0.273**	0.063***	0.187	0.015***	0.249
	(0.003)	(0.133)	(0.005)	(0.192)	(0.004)	(0.167)
Black	−0.040***	−0.731***	−0.056***	−0.934***	−0.022***	−0.455**
	(0.004)	(0.159)	(0.006)	(0.233)	(0.005)	(0.185)
Hispanic	−0.045***	−0.596***	−0.067***	−0.523***	−0.021***	−0.666***
	(0.002)	(0.117)	(0.003)	(0.141)	(0.003)	(0.110)
Health	0.003***	−0.027	0.005***	−0.065**	0.002*	0.055
	(0.001)	(0.026)	(0.002)	(0.031)	(0.001)	(0.043)
Doctoral	−0.035***	−0.654***	−0.060***	−0.943***	−0.020***	−0.264
	(0.007)	(0.176)	(0.010)	(0.247)	(0.007)	(0.211)
Professional	−0.028***	−0.506**	−0.048***	−0.538	−0.015**	−0.296
	(0.007)	(0.242)	(0.011)	(0.355)	(0.007)	(0.231)
Masters	−0.021***	−0.248	−0.041***	−0.385**	−0.003	0.003
	(0.004)	(0.158)	(0.006)	(0.192)	(0.006)	(0.194)
Bachelors	−0.004	−0.185	−0.017***	−0.477***	0.004	0.272**
	(0.004)	(0.122)	(0.006)	(0.147)	(0.005)	(0.138)
Associates	0.010**	−0.053	0.009	−0.194	0.009	0.208
	(0.005)	(0.125)	(0.007)	(0.155)	(0.006)	(0.140)
Some College	0.013***	0.037	0.010*	−0.168	0.013**	0.463***
	(0.004)	(0.118)	(0.006)	(0.148)	(0.005)	(0.129)
High School	0.005	−0.025	0.012**	−0.141	−0.000	0.186
	(0.004)	(0.116)	(0.006)	(0.145)	(0.004)	(0.127)
Income Elasticity	0.036***	0.091***	0.039**	0.062**	0.046*	0.107**
	(0.014)	(0.028)	(0.017)	(0.031)	(0.027)	(0.048)
Control Variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Region Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	116,930	8,496	64,403	5,907	52,527	2,589

Robust standard errors in parentheses

* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%

Control Variables include: Employed, Unemployed, Hours Worked, Married, Living With Partner, Widowed, Divorced or Separated, and Number of Children

Table 7. IV stage 1 results for all respondents and by gender.

	All Respondents		Women		Men
Dependent Variable: Log Income	(1) User	2 (Usage)	(3) User	4 (Usage)	(5) User	6 (Usage)
Family Regional Industry Income Per Capita (thousands of 2015 dollars)	0.034***	0.040***	0.034***	0.046***	0.038***	0.036***
	(0.002)	(0.008)	(0.003)	(0.010)	(0.003)	(0.012)
Real Price Proxy	0.050	−0.079	−0.011	−0.147	0.097	0.391
	(0.086)	(0.346)	(0.116)	(0.414)	(0.128)	(0.649)
Female	−0.001	−0.007
	(0.007)	(0.028)
Age	0.004***	0.005***	0.004***	0.005***	0.004***	0.006***
	(0.000)	(0.001)	(0.000)	(0.001)	(0.000)	(0.002)
White	0.131***	0.128**	0.091***	0.057	0.173***	0.216**
	(0.015)	(0.064)	(0.020)	(0.085)	(0.022)	(0.096)
Black	−0.090***	−0.127	−0.158***	−0.151	0.004	−0.098
	(0.017)	(0.087)	(0.023)	(0.119)	(0.026)	(0.127)
Hispanic	−0.175***	−0.234***	−0.155***	−0.155***	−0.191***	−0.344***
	(0.010)	(0.047)	(0.013)	(0.059)	(0.015)	(0.077)
Health	0.126***	0.143***	0.135***	0.145***	0.112***	0.135***
	(0.003)	(0.013)	(0.004)	(0.016)	(0.005)	(0.022)
Doctoral	0.960***	0.852***	0.949***	1.035***	0.980***	0.728***
	(0.026)	(0.109)	(0.041)	(0.153)	(0.033)	(0.157)
Professional	1.015***	0.822***	0.975***	0.889***	1.042***	0.743***
	(0.028)	(0.160)	(0.037)	(0.165)	(0.039)	(0.273)
Masters	0.816***	0.682***	0.861***	0.657***	0.773***	0.704***
	(0.014)	(0.061)	(0.019)	(0.068)	(0.022)	(0.113)
Bachelors	0.624***	0.463***	0.651***	0.442***	0.597***	0.486***
	(0.013)	(0.061)	(0.018)	(0.068)	(0.019)	(0.112)
Associates	0.431***	0.316***	0.444***	0.287***	0.413***	0.345***
	(0.014)	(0.060)	(0.018)	(0.068)	(0.020)	(0.111)
Some College	0.357***	0.201***	0.378***	0.171**	0.339***	0.238**
	(0.013)	(0.061)	(0.018)	(0.068)	(0.020)	(0.112)
High School	0.236***	0.219***	0.223***	0.179***	0.242***	0.265**
	(0.012)	(0.057)	(0.016)	(0.064)	(0.018)	(0.105)
Control Variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Region Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	116,930	8,496	64,403	5,907	52,527	2,589
F-statistic for weak identification	238.06	27.73	134.17	21.56	136.30	8.53

Robust standard errors in parentheses

* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%

Control Variables include: Employed, Unemployed, Hours Worked, Married, Living With Partner, Widowed, Divorced or Separated, and Number of Children

Table 8. IV stage 2 probit average marginal effects and exponential results for all respondents and by gender.

	All Respondents		Women		Men
	(1) User Margins	(2) Usage Exponential	(3) User Margins	(4) Usage Exponential	(5) User Margins	(6) Usage Exponential
Log Income	0.066***	0.351	0.053*	0.046	0.035†	0.208
	(0.019)	(0.419)	(0.030)	(0.398)	(0.022)	(0.745)
Real Price Proxy	0.093***	0.514	0.080*	0.288	0.070*	1.012
	(0.030)	(0.713)	(0.042)	(0.765)	(0.037)	(1.384)
Female	0.062***	0.575***
	(0.004)	(0.058)
Age	−0.002***	−0.015***	−0.004***	−0.020***	−0.001***	−0.001
	(0.000)	(0.003)	(0.000)	(0.003)	(0.000)	(0.006)
White	0.038***	0.245*	0.063***	0.187	0.011*	0.221
	(0.006)	(0.144)	(0.008)	(0.194)	(0.007)	(0.223)
Black	−0.041***	−0.674***	−0.054***	−0.929***	−0.024***	−0.417**
	(0.006)	(0.160)	(0.010)	(0.232)	(0.006)	(0.195)
Hispanic	−0.042***	−0.539***	−0.065***	−0.529***	−0.018***	−0.606**
	(0.006)	(0.149)	(0.008)	(0.151)	(0.007)	(0.292)
Health	−0.004	−0.061	−0.002	−0.063	−0.001	0.038
	(0.003)	(0.066)	(0.005)	(0.065)	(0.003)	(0.111)
Doctoral	−0.072***	−0.883**	−0.085***	−0.938**	−0.040**	−0.365
	(0.013)	(0.399)	(0.021)	(0.475)	(0.017)	(0.591)
Professional	−0.070***	−0.701*	−0.078***	−0.497	−0.039**	−0.402
	(0.015)	(0.426)	(0.023)	(0.510)	(0.019)	(0.609)
Masters	−0.061***	−0.425	−0.071***	−0.373	−0.025	−0.110
	(0.013)	(0.322)	(0.020)	(0.319)	(0.016)	(0.542)
Bachelors	−0.041***	−0.301	−0.046**	−0.463**	−0.015	0.184
	(0.012)	(0.219)	(0.018)	(0.230)	(0.014)	(0.373)
Associates	−0.017*	−0.138	−0.014	−0.182	−0.005	0.132
	(0.010)	(0.186)	(0.015)	(0.197)	(0.011)	(0.306)
Some College	−0.009	−0.014	−0.008	−0.160	0.002	0.404*
	(0.009)	(0.145)	(0.013)	(0.164)	(0.010)	(0.220)
High School	−0.010	−0.082	0.001	−0.133	−0.008	0.124
	(0.006)	(0.149)	(0.009)	(0.162)	(0.007)	(0.247)
Income Elasticity	0.823***	0.351	0.506*	0.046	0.647†	0.208
	(0.238)	(0.419)	(0.286)	(0.398)	(0.407)	(0.745)
Control Variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Region Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	116,930	8,496	64,403	5,907	52,527	2,589

Robust standard errors in parentheses

† significant at 12%; * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%

Control Variables include: Employed, Unemployed, Hours Worked, Married, Living With Partner, Widowed, Divorced or Separated, and Number of Children

Table 9. Probit average marginal effects and negative binomial results for all respondents and by gender.

	All Respondents		Women		Men
	(1) User Margins	(2) Usage Neg. Bin.	(3) User Margins	(4) Usage Neg. Bin.	(5) User Margins	(6) Usage Neg. Bin.
Log Income	−0.067	0.122	−0.111	0.435	−0.043	−0.213
	(0.083)	(0.250)	(0.103)	(0.295)	(0.146)	(0.410)
Log Income Squared	0.004	−0.002	0.007	−0.018	0.003	0.016
	(0.004)	(0.013)	(0.005)	(0.015)	(0.007)	(0.021)
Real Price Proxy	0.694***	0.478	0.490*	0.332	0.708**	1.008
	(0.204)	(0.712)	(0.259)	(0.770)	(0.349)	(1.342)
Female	0.453***	0.573***
	(0.016)	(0.059)
Age	−0.015***	−0.014***	−0.021***	−0.020***	−0.007***	0.000
	(0.001)	(0.002)	(0.001)	(0.002)	(0.001)	(0.003)
White	0.359***	0.273**	0.493***	0.173	0.168***	0.242
	(0.034)	(0.133)	(0.047)	(0.195)	(0.051)	(0.168)
Black	−0.373***	−0.732***	−0.441***	−0.953***	−0.264***	−0.456**
	(0.045)	(0.158)	(0.059)	(0.234)	(0.067)	(0.186)
Hispanic	−0.420***	−0.597***	−0.535***	−0.526***	−0.248***	−0.656***
	(0.026)	(0.117)	(0.033)	(0.140)	(0.041)	(0.112)
Health	0.024***	−0.027	0.030***	−0.063**	0.024*	0.053
	(0.008)	(0.026)	(0.010)	(0.031)	(0.013)	(0.043)
Doctoral	−0.339***	−0.652***	−0.519***	−0.908***	−0.248**	−0.297
	(0.078)	(0.179)	(0.116)	(0.251)	(0.107)	(0.211)
Professional	−0.259***	−0.501**	−0.393***	−0.506	−0.189*	−0.370
	(0.073)	(0.245)	(0.109)	(0.361)	(0.099)	(0.233)
Masters	−0.188***	−0.247	−0.307***	−0.373*	−0.039	−0.016
	(0.040)	(0.159)	(0.050)	(0.193)	(0.066)	(0.196)
Bachelors	−0.039	−0.185	−0.118***	−0.469***	0.038	0.261*
	(0.031)	(0.122)	(0.040)	(0.148)	(0.051)	(0.141)
Associates	0.071**	−0.053	0.052	−0.199	0.084	0.206
	(0.033)	(0.124)	(0.042)	(0.154)	(0.055)	(0.141)
Some College	0.096***	0.037	0.064*	−0.164	0.122**	0.456***
	(0.029)	(0.119)	(0.037)	(0.148)	(0.048)	(0.130)
High School	0.038	−0.025	0.073**	−0.143	−0.005	0.184
	(0.028)	(0.116)	(0.036)	(0.145)	(0.045)	(0.127)
Control Variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Region Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	116,930	8,496	64,403	5,907	52,527	2,589

Robust standard errors in parentheses

* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%

Control Variables include: Employed, Unemployed, Hours Worked, Married, Living With Partner, Widowed, Divorced or Separated, and Number of Children

Table 10. IV stage 2 probit average marginal effects and exponential results for all respondents and by gender.

	All Respondents		Women		Men
	(1) User Margins	(2) Usage Exponential	(3) User Margins	(4) Usage Exponential	(5) User Margins	(6) Usage Exponential
Log Income	0.062***	0.341	0.030	0.223	0.032	−0.264
	(0.021)	(0.480)	(0.036)	(0.467)	(0.022)	(0.843)
ACA x Log Income	0.013	0.020	0.051*	−0.450	−0.007	1.414*
	(0.017)	(0.446)	(0.029)	(0.481)	(0.019)	(0.773)
Real Price Proxy	0.099***	0.527	0.103**	0.087	0.065*	1.603
	(0.031)	(0.785)	(0.045)	(0.813)	(0.037)	(1.548)
Female	0.063***	0.575***
	(0.004)	(0.058)
Age	−0.002***	−0.015***	−0.004***	−0.019***	−0.001***	−0.002
	(0.000)	(0.003)	(0.000)	(0.003)	(0.000)	(0.006)
White	0.038***	0.250*	0.065***	0.173	0.012*	0.290
	(0.007)	(0.145)	(0.009)	(0.197)	(0.007)	(0.229)
Black	−0.041***	−0.671***	−0.054***	−0.875***	−0.023***	−0.456**
	(0.007)	(0.167)	(0.011)	(0.245)	(0.006)	(0.194)
Hispanic	−0.042***	−0.540***	−0.066***	−0.483***	−0.019***	−0.706**
	(0.007)	(0.164)	(0.009)	(0.167)	(0.007)	(0.315)
Health	−0.005	−0.060	−0.002	−0.071	−0.000	0.074
	(0.003)	(0.068)	(0.005)	(0.067)	(0.003)	(0.120)
Doctoral	−0.074***	−0.858*	−0.091***	−1.010**	−0.035*	0.081
	(0.014)	(0.440)	(0.021)	(0.513)	(0.019)	(0.680)
Professional	−0.071***	−0.699	−0.084***	−0.546	−0.033	0.372
	(0.015)	(0.472)	(0.023)	(0.506)	(0.021)	(0.828)
Masters	−0.063***	−0.414	−0.078***	−0.383	−0.020	0.175
	(0.013)	(0.335)	(0.020)	(0.324)	(0.018)	(0.607)
Bachelors	−0.042***	−0.291	−0.050***	−0.459**	−0.010	0.422
	(0.012)	(0.229)	(0.019)	(0.231)	(0.015)	(0.422)
Associates	−0.018*	−0.128	−0.015	−0.194	−0.002	0.348
	(0.010)	(0.197)	(0.016)	(0.201)	(0.012)	(0.346)
Some College	−0.010	−0.003	−0.009	−0.167	0.004	0.592**
	(0.009)	(0.157)	(0.014)	(0.168)	(0.010)	(0.260)
High School	−0.010	−0.074	0.000	−0.142	−0.006	0.297
	(0.006)	(0.160)	(0.000)	(0.166)	(0.007)	(0.281)
Income Elasticity	0.777***	0.341	0.288	0.223	0.599	−0.264
	(0.263)	(0.480)	(0.343)	(0.467)	(0.407)	(0.843)
ACA x Income Elasticity	0.158	0.020	0.486*	−0.450	−0.136	1.414*
	(0.213)	(0.446)	(0.276)	(0.481)	(0.352)	(0.773)
Control Variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Region Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	116,930	8,496	64,403	5,907	52,527	2,589

Robust standard errors in parentheses

* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%

Control Variables include: Employed, Unemployed, Hours Worked, Married, Living With Partner, Widowed, Divorced or Separated, and Number of Children

Table 11. IV stage 2 probit average marginal effects and exponential results for 18–25 year old respondents and by gender.

	All Respondents		Women		Men
	(1) User Margins	(2) Usage Exponential	(3) User Margins	(4) Usage Exponential	(5) User Margins	(6) Usage Exponential
Log Income	0.210***	−0.397	0.197***	−0.080	0.220***	−0.460
	(0.016)	(0.565)	(0.031)	(0.697)	(0.017)	(0.474)
Real Price Proxy	0.122	0.093	0.094	−0.161	0.139	−1.151
	(0.099)	(1.188)	(0.148)	(1.323)	(0.125)	(2.471)
Female	0.095***	0.971***
	(0.036)	(0.111)
Age	0.003	−0.063	−0.000	−0.050	0.006*	−0.017
	(0.002)	(0.044)	(0.004)	(0.050)	(0.003)	(0.050)
White	0.028	0.440**	0.061	0.506**	−0.002	−0.068
	(0.026)	(0.177)	(0.045)	(0.225)	(0.028)	(0.226)
Black	−0.043	−0.457	−0.054	−0.349	−0.040	−1.222***
	(0.037)	(0.381)	(0.052)	(0.410)	(0.064)	(0.411)
Hispanic	−0.050**	−0.556***	−0.082**	−0.447**	−0.023	−0.561***
	(0.024)	(0.166)	(0.038)	(0.205)	(0.031)	(0.204)
Health	−0.027***	0.016	−0.020*	−0.091	−0.032***	0.281**
	(0.007)	(0.112)	(0.011)	(0.122)	(0.011)	(0.131)
Doctoral
Professional	0.167*	0.039	0.312***	0.118
	(0.089)	(0.487)	(0.095)	(0.596)
Masters	−0.103**	−0.599	−0.114**	−0.548
	(0.044)	(0.652)	(0.048)	(0.756)
Bachelors	0.011	−0.034	0.031	−0.219	−0.000	−0.059
	(0.015)	(0.220)	(0.031)	(0.245)	(0.018)	(0.377)
Associates	−0.013	0.211	0.016	−0.158	−0.029	0.135
	(0.019)	(0.240)	(0.037)	(0.259)	(0.025)	(0.371)
Some College	0.036**	0.317	0.053*	−0.025	0.034*	0.821***
	(0.015)	(0.238)	(0.031)	(0.284)	(0.019)	(0.277)
High School	0.001	0.046	0.036	−0.141	−0.016	0.019
	(0.009)	(0.195)	(0.029)	(0.235)	(0.018)	(0.232)
Income Elasticity	1.563***	−0.397	0.971***	−0.080	3.189***	−0.460
	(0.119)	(0.565)	(0.153)	(0.697)	(0.242)	(0.474)
Control Variables	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Region Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year Effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Observations	12,868	1,714	6,745	1,321	6,030	393

Robust standard errors in parentheses

* significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%

Control Variables include: Employed, Unemployed, Hours Worked, Married, Living With Partner, Divorced or Separated, and Number of Children