Mineral and isotopic (Nd, Sr) signature of fine-grained deglacial and Holocene sediments from the Mackenzie Trough, Arctic Canada

Figures & data

Figure 1. (a) Northern Canada and regions of carbonate bedrock (red). The Mackenzie River drainage area is outlined in black and shaded in opaque white. Yellow dashed lines separate the three major bedrock provinces in the Mackenzie basin. (b) Location of MTW01 in the Mackenzie Trough offshore the Mackenzie River mouth. Carbonate bearing bedrock (dolostones and limestones) in red (Harrison et al. 2011). Yellow area is the Mackenzie River Delta. SL = Great Slave Lake. Base map from International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean (IBCAO) (Jakobsson et al. 2008).

Table 1. Quantification of dolomite in sediments from the Amerasian Basin.

Area	Grain size fraction	Methods	Dolomite content	References
Canada Basin and Alpha Ridge	<2 µm	17 sediment cores (0–282 mbsf) XRD Quantification method unknown	Average <5%	Carrol (1970)
Alpha Ridge	<2 µm	2 sediment cores (<400 mbsf; <4.25 Ma) XRD Semi-quantification according to Cook et al. (1975)	Average <1% Higher concentration in sandy layers	Dalrymple and Maas (1987)
Canada Basin off Chukchi Plateau and Alpha Ridge	Bulk sediment	5 sediment cores (15–202 mbsf; Plio-Pleistocene to modern sediment) Gasometric analysis + XRD Quantification according to Griffin (1971)	Average 12.3% and standard deviation 9.6	Darby et al. (1989)
Canada Basin off Chukchi Plateau and Alpha Ridge	>250 µm	5 sediment cores (<16.3 ka BP) Counting and classification of separate grains under microscope	Average of 15% detrital carbonates	Bischof, Clark, and Vincent (1996)
Canada Basin	Bulk sediment	5 surficial sediment samples XRD Quantification using QUAX software	2%–20%	Vogt (1997)
Chukchi Shelf, Chukchi Plateau, Canada Basin and Makarov Basin	>2 mm	26 box cores (surficial samples) Counting and classification of separate grains under microscope	34%–70%	Phillips and Grantz (2001)
Mendeleev Ridge	<10 µm	One sediment core (40 cm; <250 ka BP) XRD Semi-quantification by normalizing dolomite peak with quartz peak	1%–28%	Not and Hillaire-Marcel (2010)
Lomonosov intrabasin	<20 µm, 20–63 µm, and >63 µm	2 sediment cores (47 and 117.8 cm;<57 ka BP) XRD of separate grain size fractions Semi-quantification by normalizing dolomite peak with quartz peak	<20 µm: 0.5%–6% 20–63 µm: 2.5%–15% >63 µm: 0%–25%	Not and Hillaire-Marcel (2012)
Canadian Beaufort Shelf	<500 µm	4 sediment traps moored at 55 m above sea floor 1987–1988 (1 yr) Flame atomic absorption spectrometry is used to quantify Ca Ca is converted into carbonates	2.5%–5% detrital carbonates	O’Brien et al. (2006)

Table 2. Quantification of dolomite in sediments from the Amerasian Basin.

Area	Grain size fraction	Methods	Dolomite content	References
Canada Basin off Mendeleev Ridge	Bulk sediment	5 cores (Plio-Pleistocene to modern). Gasometric analysis + XRD. Quantification according to Griffin (1971)	Average 12.3% and standard deviation 9.6	Darby et al. (1989)
Canada Basin	Bulk sediment	5 surficial samples. XRD. Quantification using QUAX software	2%–20%	Vogt (1997)
Canada Basin off Mendeleev Ridge	Bulk sediment	1 core (Plio-Pleistocene to modern). XRD with semi-quantification	0%–50% >25% only in pink-white layers	Stein et al. (2010)
Canada Basin and Alpha Ridge	<2 µm	17 cores (age unknown). XRD, quantification method unknown	Average <5%	Carrol (1970)
Alpha Ridge	<2 µm	2 cores (<4.25 Ma). XRD with semi-quantification according to Cook et al. (1975)	Average <1% Higher concentration in sandy layers	Dalrymple and Maas (1987)
Lomonosov intrabasin	<20 µm 20–63 µm >63 µm	1 core (<57 ka BP). XRD of separate grain size fractions Semi-quantification by normalizing of quartz peak	<20 µm: 0.5%–6% 20–63 µm: 2.5%–15% >63 µm: 0%–25%	Not and Hillaire-Marcel (2012)
Mendeleev Ridge	20–63 µm >63 µm	1 core (<250 ka BP). XRD of separate grain size fractions Semi-quantification according to Cook et al. (1975)	20–63 µm: 0%–45% >63 µm: 0%–25%	Fagel et al. (2014)
Mackenzie River Delta Amundsen Gulf Chukchi Shelf	<45 µm	3 samples (Pleistocene to Holocene). XRD with quantification using RockJock	MRD: 14.6% AG: 8.1% CS: 0.6%–1.6%	Darby et al. (2011)
Mendeleev Ridge	<63 µm	1 core (<250 ka BP). XRD with semi-quantification by normalizing dolomite peak by quartz peak	1%–28%	Not and Hillaire-Marcel (2010)
Canada Basin off Mendeleev Ridge	<63 µm	1 core (Plio-Pleistocene to modern). XRD with semi-quantification according to Cook et al. (1975)	≤53% High content in PW layers	Dong et al. (2017)
Alaskan Chukchi Sea margin	<250 µm	One core (late Quaternary). XRD with quantification using RockJock	0%–35% Low during LGM	Polyak et al. (2009)
Chukchi Shelf and Plateau, Canada and Makarov basins	>2 mm	26 box cores (surficial samples). Counting and classification of separate grains under microscope	34%–70%	Phillips and Grantz (2001)
Canadian Beaufort Sea	Bulk sediment (<2 mm)	34 surficial sediments. XRD with semi-quantification Rietveld full-pattern fitting method	2.7%–34.8%	Gambo et al. (2017)
Canadian Beaufort Slope	Bulk sediment (<2 mm)	2 cores spanning deglacial and Holocene. Quantitative X-ray diffraction	0%–28%	Deschamps et al. 2018), Kutos, Rochon, and Montero-Serrano (2021)

Figure 2. (a) Map of the Arctic Ocean showing sample locations and dolomite abundances reported in sediments from the Amerasian Basin and Canadian Arctic. Data are from Bazhenova, Vogt, and Stein (2012) and Gamboa et al. (2017). (b) Detail of the Canadian Beaufort Sea illustrating the increase in dolomite contents of surface sediments as one moves east toward the Amundsen Gulf. Additional data points from Darby et al. (2011) are shown (squares). Position of sediment cores discussed in the text are indicated with triangles. CS = Chukchi Sea; ESS = East Siberian Sea; MR = Mendeleev Ridge; MB = Makarov Basin; LR = Lomonosov Ridge; AR = Alpha Ridge.

Figure 3. (a) Suspended bulk sediment load (s) and dissolved load (d) ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr average ratios of main tributaries and minor tributaries from the major bedrock regimes in the Mackenzie River catchment area. ɛ_Nd for western (W), and eastern (E) lakes in the modern Mackenzie River Delta are shown after (Vonk et al. 2015). Mstr = Mackenzie River mainstream. (b) Compilation of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ɛ_Nd of regional bedrock terrains (North American Cordilleras: Francis and Ludden 1990; Carignan, Ludden, and Francis 1994; Abraham, Francis, and Polvé 2001; Slave Province: McCulloch and Wasserburg 1978; Cousens 2000; Mackenzie LIP: Dupuy et al. 1992; Alaska Peninsula basalts: Andronikov and Mukasa 2010; Akinin et al. 2013; Chukchi Peninsula: Ledneva, Pease, and Sokolov 2011).

Figure 4. Lithostratigraphy of MTW01 (Moran, Hill, and Blasco 1989) and radiocarbon dates from O’Regan et al. (2018). Units C–E were deposited in a progradational (deltaic) environment. Unit B was deposited during periods of rising sea level. Unit A was deposited in a marine environment.

Table 3. Data of ε_Nd, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, and concentrations of Nd and Sr.

Sample	Mid depth (mbsf)	CSr (ppm)	^87Sr/^86Sr^a	2 SD^b	CNd	^143Nd/^144Nd^c	2 SD^d	εNd(0)^e	2 SD
1A	0.1	170	0.722645	0.000015	36	0.5119780	0.000011	−12.9	0.21
6B	7.87	150	0.724435	0.000015	36	0.5119518	0.000011	−13.4	0.21
12B	17.17	150	0.724681	0.000015	36	0.5119540	0.000011	−13.3	0.21
16B	21.82	150	0.726687	0.000015	39	0.5118905	0.000011	−14.6	0.21
20A	27.56	190	0.716294	0.000015	30	0.5120738	0.000011	−11.0	0.21
24A	31.35	190	0.716068	0.000015	33	0.5119622	0.000011	−13.2	0.21
28B	38.30	180	0.717227	0.000015	29	0.5119793	0.000011	−12.8	0.21
35B	55.59	180	0.719041	0.000015	34	0.5119480	0.000011	−13.5	0.21
39B	66.70	200	0.717151	0.000015	31	0.5119578	0.000011	−13.3	0.21
43B	81.29	210	0.717455	0.000015	34	0.5119390	0.000011	−13.6	0.21

Notes. ^aFor ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr analysis, measured ⁸⁷Sr intensities were corrected for Rb interference using ⁸⁷Rb/⁸⁵Rb = 0.38600 and the mass fractionation corrected for using the exponential fractionation and ⁸⁶Sr/⁸⁸Sr = 0.1194. The corrected ratio is normalized to the standard NBS987 ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of 0.710245.

^bThe external precision is determined by analyzing NBS987 and was 0.710220 ± 0.000015 (2 SD, n = 12).

^cFor ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴³Nd analysis, the mass fractionation was corrected for using exponential fractionation and ¹⁴⁶Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd = 0.7219. No accuracy correction was applied to the ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios.

^dThe external precision is determined by analyzing the LaJolla standard ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd = 0.511848 ± 0.000011 (2 SD, n = 11).

^eε_Nd(0) = [(¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd)sample/(¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd)CHUR − 1] × 104; CHUR, chondritic uniform reservoir with ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd = 0.512638 (Jacobsen and Wasserburg 1980).

Table 4. Grain size and mineral abundances in MTW01.

Sample ID	Median depth (mbsf)	Clay (<2 µm)	Silt (2–38 µm)	Chlorite and kaolinite (wt%)	Illite (wt%)	Calcite(wt%)	Dolomite(wt%)	Quartz(wt%)	Feldspar(wt%)
1A	1	33.1	66.9	14.4	37.3	2.0	6.3	32.4	7.6
4A	4.8	33.8	66.2	13.8	34.7	2.3	6.5	33.4	9.2
5B	6.3	32.1	67.9	14.3	33.8	2.5	6.3	34.2	8.8
6B	7.9	34.8	65.2	13.9	33.8	2.5	6.7	32.8	10.3
7B	9.4	29.1	70.9	14.7	30.0	2.5	6.5	35.0	11.2
10B	14	30.1	69.8	13.4	32.6	2.3	7.6	33.3	10.8
12B	17.2	35.9	64.1	14.5	34.5	1.8	8.2	32.3	8.7
14B	20	33.2	66.8	13.1	36.3	1.9	6.6	31.0	11.1
15B	20.9	37.3	62.7	15.2	35.6	1.1	6.1	30.9	11.1
16B	21.8	35.9	64.1	14.5	33.1	0.9	4.4	35.3	11.8
17B	22.7	15.8	84.2	13.4	22.4	3.3	7.9	44.3	8.8
18B	23.6	13.3	86.6	12.5	19.5	3.2	7.7	46.6	10.4
19A	24.5	13.5	86.4	11.6	18.7	3.3	6.9	48.9	10.6
20A	27.6	14.4	85.6	12.1	19.6	3.2	7.3	44.5	13.2
21B	28.5	18.2	81.8	13.7	20.5	3.8	7.2	42.8	12.0
24A	31.4	9.5	90.5	9.5	13.5	3.5	10.4	49.8	13.3
28B	38.3	9.0	91.0	9.1	14.1	4.3	10.1	51.1	11.3
35B	55.9	19.2	80.7	13.4	21.2	5.0	9.1	40.8	10.5
39B	66.7	18.1	81.4	13.4	19.6	5.6	9.0	39.7	12.7
40B	71.3	19.7	80.0	13.7	24.6	5.1	7.2	37.6	11.8
41	75.8	18.5	81.3	13.7	23.0	4.7	8.2	38.2	12.2
42	76.7	15.6	84.2	13.3	19.6	5.0	9.0	41.2	11.9
43B	81.3	16.2	83.5	11.5	17.7	5.2	9.3	43.4	12.9

Figure 5. Stacked diffractogram from XRD of MTW01 samples. C/K = chlorite + kaolinite; I/M = illite + muscovite; Q = quartz; F = feldspars; C = calcite; D = dolomite. Note that the quartz peak is not presented in its full height.

Figure 6. Results from Rietveld refinement (in wt%) of the mineral assemblage in MTW01.

Figure 7. Borehole lithology, key mineral abundances (closed sum percent) and grain size illustrated alongside the Sr and Nd concentrations and isotopic composition. Radiocarbon age ranges (2 sigma) from O’Regan et al. (2018) are shown on the right. Red = dates on mixed benthic foraminifera; blue = mollusk fragments; green = maximum limiting ages from radiocarbon dates on the particulate organic carbon content in the >63 µm size fraction.

Figure 8. Clay, illite (white), and calcite (black) content versus the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio for the MTW01 sediments.

Figure 9. Comparison between MTW01 and surface sediment ε_Nd and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr from the Canadian Beaufort Sea (Asahara et al. 2012; Vonk et al. 2015; Maccali, Hillaire-Marcel, and Not 2018; Schwab et al. 2021). The box plots show the upper quartile (UQ), lower quartile (LQ), median, and range of data points not deemed as outliers. Outliers were identified as data points whose value was >UQ + 1.5 * IQD or <IQ − 1.5 * IQD, where IQD is the interquartile distance (IQD = UQ − LQ). The raw data are overlain to show the distribution. For MTW01, symbols indicate the depositional setting (progradational, transitional, marine). Annotations indicate the ɛ_Nd values for sediments from lakes in the east and west of the Mackenzie delta and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr of suspended sediments in major tributaries of the Mackenzie River (from Figure 3).

Figure 10. Spatial variations in surface sediment εNd and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr in the Canadian Beaufort Sea (Asahara et al. 2012; Vonk et al. 2015; Maccali, Hillaire-Marcel, and Not 2018; Schwab et al. 2021). The range of MTW01 sediments is shown on the right, alongside relative changes expected between the authigenic and carbonate phases and the pure detrital silicate signal (taken from tests individual extracted phases reported by Asahara et al. (2012) and Schwab et al. (2021). The lower ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios and less negative εNd signature of MTW01 sediments can both be partially explained by the influence of authigenic and carbonate phases, which were not removed in our study.

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