Making America great for whom?: How Trump’s Presidency affected fit and national identity among targets of bias

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary of sample demographics in studies 1 and 2.

	Study 1(N = 290)		Study 2(N = 360)^1
	N	%	N	%
Race/ethnicity
White/Caucasian	227	78.28%	261	72.50%
African American/Black	25	8.62%	29	8.06%
Latino/Hispanic	16	5.52%	23	6.39%
East Asian or Pacific Islander	14	4.83%	25	6.94%
Native American	4	1.38%	4	1.11%
South Asian	1	0.34%	7	1.94%
Middle Eastern	1	0.34%	0	0.00%
Other	2	0.69%	9	2.50%
Gender
Male	114	39.31%	149	41.39%
Female	174	60.00%	203	56.39%
Trans	0	0.00%	3	0.83%
Other	2	0.69%	4	1.11%
Religion
Christian	133	47.16%	146	41.60%
Atheist/Agnostic	101	35.82%	138	39.12%
Spiritual but not religious	31	10.99%	36	10.16%
Other	17	6.03%	31	8.83%
	M	SD	M	SD
Age	38.40	12.19	36.56	11.35
Political orientation	5.10	1.62	5.25	1.47
Income	5.14	2.78	5.47	2.95
Education	4.48	1.65	4.46	1.69
Religiosity	3.04	2.18	2.92	2.10

Note. For political orientation, 1 = Conservative to 7 = Liberal; For income, 1 = $0-$10,000 to 10 = Over $100,000; For Education; 1 = Did not finish high school to 8 = Ph.D. or Professional Degree; For Religiosity; 1 = Not at all religious to 7 = Extremely religious.¹ For Study 2, two participants did not report their race/ethnicity, and one participant did not report their gender.

Table 2. Summary of Coded Responses for Ingroups Targeted by Campaign Rhetoric in Studies 1 and 2.

	Study 1 (N = 290)		Study 2 (N = 360)
Feeling targeted for being …	Low Target Rating (1–3, n = 140)	High Target Rating (4–5, n = 141)	Low Target Rating (1–3, n = 176)	High Target Rating (4–5, n = 170)
Female	10	90	20	115
Ethnic Minority (i.e., Black, Latino, Native American, Arabic)	2	46	7	49
LGBTQ	2	26	3	37
Religious Minority (i.e., Muslim, Jewish)	2	12	2	11
Non-Conservative	0	14	2	6
Immigrant	0	8	4	10
Other (e.g., disabled, working class)	8	39	18	50
Total participants who listed identities	29	131	43	159

Note. Participants were able to list more than one identity. In Study 1, 8 participants did not answer the feeling targeted question.

Table 3. Study 1 – Bivariate correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of Main Study Variables Including Political Orientation.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Feeling Targeted	1
2. Social Fit	−.15**	1
3. Self-Concept Fit	−.05	.64***	1
4. American Identification	−.11	.33***	.50***	1
5. Social Identity Threat	.34***	−.13*	−.01	−.03	1
6. Expected Discrimination	.43***	−.28***	−.19***	−.10	.61***	1
7. Political Orientation	.42***	−.06	−.10	−.20***	.07	.09	1
M (SD) Final Sample	3.10 (1.81)	4.96 (1.52)	4.56 (1.59)	4.35 (1.73)	4.82 (1.31)	3.17 (1.96)	5.10 (1.62)
M (SD) High Support Condition	2.96 (1.83)	4.81 (1.54)	4.41 (1.58)	4.18 (1.76)	4.85 (1.26)	3.15 (1.92)	5.13 (1.67)
M (SD) Low Support Condition	3.24 (1.79)	5.11 (1.50)	4.70 (1.59)	4.53 (1.68)	4.78 (1.36)	3.19 (2.01)	5.08 (1.57)
Mean Differences Between Condition	d = −0.15	d = −0.20	d = −0.18	d = −0.20^†	d = 0.05	d = −0.02	d = 0.03

Notes. †p < .10 * p < .05. ** p < .01. ***p < .001; 7 pt scales except for feeling targeted, 1 = Not at All Targeted, 5 = Highly Targeted; for political orientation, 1 = Conservative, 7 = Liberal.

Table 4. Study 1: Results of Linear Regression Analyses (standardized betas and p-values) Predicting Core Outcome Variables from Condition, Feeling Targeted, and their Interaction.

Model	Social Fit				Self-Concept Fit				American Identification				Social Identity Threat				Expected Discrimination
Predictor	ß	SE	t(252/253)	p	ß	SE	t(252/253)	p	ß	SE	t(249/250)	p	ß	SE	t(251/252)	p	ß	SE	t(252 /253)	p
Step 1
Condition^1	−.15	.12	−1.28	.203	−.15	.12	−1.20	.230	−.20	.12	−1.70	.091	.04	.11	0.39	.695	−.01	.11	−0.12	.904
Feeling Targeted	−.15	.07	−2.22	.027	.01	.07	0.14	.888	−.03	.07	−0.43	.670	.40	.06	6.36	<.001	.46	.06	7.51	<.001
Political Orientation	−.00	.07	−0.01	.992	−.11	.07	−1.53	.128	−.19	.07	−2.81	.005	−.11	.06	−1.73	.085	−.11	.06	−1.82	.070
Age	.08	.06	1.26	.210	.15	.06	2.42	.016	.23	.06	3.75	<.001	−.09	.06	−1.52	.131	−.08	.06	−1.34	.182
Education	−.07	.06	−1.09	.277	−.14	.06	−2.22	.027	.05	.06	0.86	.390	−.02	.06	−0.26	.798	.00	.06	0.07	.942
Income	.22	.06	3.52	.001	.16	.07	2.41	.017	.04	.06	0.58	.564	−.12	.06	−1.93	.054	−.11	.06	−1.91	.057
Employment Status	.06	.06	1.04	.299	−.04	.06	−0.61	.546	.06	.06	1.04	.297	−.07	.06	−1.14	.255	−.00	.06	−0.02	.983
Live in Rural Area	−.03	.06	−0.46	.648	−.04	.06	−0.63	.532	.05	.06	0.75	.451	.04	.06	0.64	.524	.08	.06	1.45	.148
Blue vs. Red State	−.01	.06	−0.21	.833	−.03	.06	−0.53	.594	−.05	.06	−0.78	.436	.01	.06	0.16	.871	.00	.06	0.02	.983
Step 2
Condition x Feeling Targeted	−.05	.12	−0.40	.691	−.09	.13	−0.71	.481	−.11	.12	−0.94	.348	.06	.12	0.52	.605	.17	.11	1.53	.127
Simple slopes for condition (outcomes but not condition standardized)
High Targeted (+1 SD)	−.20	.17	−1.17	.243	−.24	.18	−1.34	.180	−.32	.17	−1.86	.065	.11	.16	0.65	.519	.16	.16	1.02	.309
Low Targeted(−1 SD)	−.10	.17	−0.62	.539	−.06	.18	−0.35	.730	−.09	.17	−0.52	.606	−.02	.16	−0.09	.926	−.19	.16	−1.17	.242

Note. ¹ Condition (0 = Low support, 1 = High support)

Table 5. Study 2 – Bivariate correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of Main Study Variables Including Political Orientation.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Feeling Targeted	1
2. Social Fit	−.05	1
3. Self-Concept Fit	.00	.61**	1
4. American Identification	−.10	.37**	.40**	1
5. Social Identity Threat	.34**	−.19**	−.13*	−.11*	1
6. Expected Discrimination	.45**	−.29**	−.24**	−.22**	.67**	1
7. Political Orientation	.43**	−.06	−.06	−.26**	.19**	.22**	1
M (SD) Final Sample	3.19 (1.68)	4.45 (1.66)	4.53 (1.54)	4.25 (1.77)	4.60 (1.54)	3.51 (1.91)	5.25 (1.47)
M (SD) Trump Condition	3.32 (1.68)	3.94 (1.66)	4.13 (1.61)	3.98 (1.78)	4.95 (1.53)	4.09 (1.93)	5.30 (1.46)
M (SD) Obama Condition	3.05 (1.68)	4.94 (1.51)	4.92 (1.36)	4.51 (1.72)	4.25 (1.47)	2.93 (1.71)	5.21 (1.48)
Mean Differences Between Condition	d = 0.16	d = −0.63**	d = −0.53**	d = −0.30*	d = 0.47**	d = 0.64**	d = 0.06

Notes. * p < .05. **p < .001. 7 pt scales except for feeling targeted, 1 = Not At All Targeted, 5 = Highly Targeted; for political orientation, 1 = Extremely Conservative (republican) to 7 = Extremely Liberal (democrat).

Table 6. Study 2: Results of Linear Regression Analyses (standardized betas and p-values) Predicting Core Outcome Variables from.

	Social Fit				Self-Concept Fit				American Identification					Social Identity Threat					Expected Discrimination
	ß	SE	t(312/313)	p	ß	SE	t(312/313)	p	ß	SE		t(310/311)	p	ß	SE	t(311/312)		p	ß	SE	t(312/313)	p
Condition^1	−.59	.10	−5.63	<.001	−.49	.11	−4.43	<.001	−.27	.10		−2.55	.011	.45	.10	4.38		<.001	.58	.10	6.04	<.001
Feeling Targeted	.01	.06	0.14	.892	.06	.06	0.99	.323	.02	.06		0.36	.716	.28	.06	4.85		<.001	.39	.05	7.30	<.001
Political Orient.	−.03	.06	−0.48	.635	−.05	.06	−0.85	.396	−.29	.06		−4.98	<.001	.03	.06	0.45		.656	−.00	.05	−0.02	.982
Age	.03	.05	0.55	.581	.15	.06	2.68	.008	.19	.06		3.55	<.001	.03	.05	0.66		.510	.00	.05	0.08	.937
Education	.03	.06	0.45	.652	−.02	.06	−0.42	.676	.08	.06		1.38	.168	−.00	.06	−0.07		.945	.01	.05	0.27	.787
Income	.21	.06	3.75	<.001	.11	.06	1.95	.052	.04	.06		0.63	.528	−.09	.05	−1.65		.099	−.12	.05	−2.39	.017
Employment Status	.10	.06	1.80	.073	.04	.06	0.65	.517	.03	.05		0.46	.645	.02	.05	0.41		.686	.01	.05	0.17	.863
Live in Rural Area	.02	.06	0.45	.654	−.08	.06	−1.42	.156	.03	.05		0.61	.543	.04	.05	0.67		.503	.01	.05	0.19	.850
Blue vs. Red State	.06	.05	1.08	.280	−.00	.06	−0.04	.971	.02	.05		0.41	.683	−.09	.05	−1.81		.072	−.09	.05	−1.82	.070
Step 2
Condition x Targeted	−.28	.10	−2.67	.008	.00	.11	0.02	.988	.02	.11		0.22	.826	.43	.10	4.23		<.001	.41	.09	4.37	<.001
Simple slopes for Condition (outcome but not condition standardized
High Targeted(+ 1 SD)	−.86	.15	−5.89	<.001	−.48	.16	−3.10	.002	−.24	.15		−1.63	.104	.88	.14	6.17		<.001	1.00	.13	7.47	<.001
Low Targeted (−1SD)	−.31	.15	−2.14	.033	−.49	.16	−3.14	.002	−.29	.15		−1.96	.050	.03	.14	0.22		.830	.17	.13	1.32	.188

Note. ¹ Condition (0 = Obama, 1 = Trump)

Figure 1. Study 2 interaction of condition and feeling targeted predicting social fit.

Table 7. Summary of Sample Demographics in Study 3.

	Study 3 (N = 376)
	N	%
Race/ethnicity
African American/Black	189	50.27%
East Asian/Pacific Islander	73	19.41%
South East Asian	47	12.50%
Hispanic/Latino	43	11.44%
Other	16	4.26%
Native American	5	1.33%
Middle Eastern	3	0.80%
Gender
Male	185	49.20%
Female	185	49.20%
Non-Binary	4	1.06%
Other	2	0.53%
	M	SD
Age	29.40	9.83
Education	5.30	1.90
Political orientation	3.06	1.47
Religiosity	3.15	2.16
SES	4.90	1.64

Table 8. Bivariate correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of Main Study Variables Including Political Orientation in the Combined Study 3 Sample. Reported d-scores are from models without covariates.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Feeling Targeted	1.00
2. Social Fit	.03	1.0
3. Self-Concept Fit	−.04	.68***	1.0
4. American Identification	−.06	.48***	.58***	1.0
5. Social Identity Threat	.36***	−.06	.03	.09	1.0
6. Expected Discrimination	.18***	−.11*	−.08	.003	.39***	1.0
7. Political Orientation	−.31***	.25***	.30***	.26***	−.12*	−.011	1.0
M (SD) Final Sample	3.98 (1.26)	4.36 (1.52)	4.21 (1.58)	3.63 (1.75)	5.29 (1.29)	3.36 (1.67)	3.06 (1.47)
M (SD) Pre Biden	3.97 (1.29)	3.99 (1.48)	3.9 (1.47)	3.21 (1.51)	5.33 (1.22)	3.34 (1.65)	2.91 (1.30)
M (SD) Post Biden	3.98 (1.23)	4.72 (1.48)	4.53 (1.63)	4.05 (1.87)	5.26 (1.36)	3.39 (1.68)	3.22 (1.62)
Raw Mean Differences Between Condition	d = 0.01	d = 0.49***	d = 0.41***	d = 0.50***	d = −0.05	d = 0.03	d = 0.21*

Table 9. Results of Linear Regression Analyses (standardized betas and p-values) Predicting Core Outcome Variables from Time.

	Social Fit				Self-Concept Fit				American Identification				Social Identity Threat				Expected Discrimination
term	ß	SE	t(370)	p	ß	SE	t(370)	p	ß	SE	t(365)	p	ß	SE	t(368)	p	ß	SE	t(370)	p
Time	0.37	0.10	3.75	< .001	0.22	0.10	2.24	.026	0.32	0.10	3.16	.002	−0.09	0.11	−0.81	.419	−0.03	0.11	−0.29	.768
Age	0.20	0.05	4.04	< .001	0.13	0.05	2.57	.011	0.17	0.05	3.38	< .001	−0.07	0.05	−1.29	.199	−0.02	0.05	−0.39	.697
Political Orientation	0.20	0.05	4.15	< .001	0.26	0.05	5.44	< .001	0.20	0.05	4.11	< .001	−0.11	0.05	−2.14	.033	−0.03	0.05	−0.60	.548
SES	0.15	0.05	3.09	.002	0.09	0.05	1.72	.087	0.08	0.05	1.70	.089	−0.06	0.05	−1.07	.285	−0.05	0.05	−0.92	.359
Born in America	0.16	0.13	1.27	.205	0.37	0.13	2.95	.003	0.35	0.13	2.80	.005	0.14	0.14	0.99	.323	0.21	0.14	1.55	.122
Education	0.07	0.05	1.36	.175	0.15	0.05	2.84	.005	0.15	0.05	2.85	.005	0.12	0.06	2.08	.039	0.08	0.06	1.38	.169

Note: Time (0 = Pre, 1 = Post); Born in America (1 = Yes, 0 = No).