Application of Natural (Plant) Fibers Particularly Hemp Fiber as Reinforcement in Hybrid Polymer Composites - Part I. Origin of Hemp and Its Coming into Prominence, Cultivation Statistics, and Legal Regulations

Figures & data

Figure 1. Examples of fibrous plants abundant in different regions of the world.

Table 1. Chemical composition of some plant fibers by percentage weight.

	Cellulose	Hemicellulose	Lignin	Ash	Pectin	Waxes
Type of fiber	(wt%)						References
Bast fiber
Jute (JF)	51–78	12.0–20.4	10–15	–	0.2	0.5	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); De Rosa, Santulli, and Sarasini (2010); Faruk et al. (2012); Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
Kenaf (KF)	44–72	15.0–20.3	9.0–21.5	4.7	–	<1,0	Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
Industrial hemp (HF)	68–78	15.0–22.4	3.5–10.0	2.6	0.9	0.8	Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); De Rosa, Santulli, and Sarasini (2010); Srinivasa et al. (2011); Faruk et al. (2012); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
Flax (FF)	64–84	16.7–20.6	0.6–9.0	1.5	1.8–2.0	1.5–1.7	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); De Rosa, Santulli, and Sarasini (2010); Srinivasa et al. (2011); Faruk et al. (2012); Das and Kalita (2014)
Ramie (RF)	67–99	13.0–16.7	0.5–1.0	-	1.9	0.3	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Shah (2013); Tri-Dung (2018)
Leaf fiber
Abaca/Manila (ABF)	60–80	10–25	5–14	–	–	3	Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); De Rosa, Santulli, and Sarasini (2010); Faruk et al. (2012);Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
Sisal (SIF)	60–80	8.0–14.2	6–14	–	0.8–10.0	0.3–2.0	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); De Rosa, Santulli, and Sarasini (2010); Srinivasa et al. (2011); Faruk et al. (2012); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
Seed fiber
Cotton (COF)	80–99	5–20	6	–	0–1	0.6	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); De Rosa, Santulli, and Sarasini (2010); Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
Fruit fiber
Coir (CCF)	32–44	0.15–0.25	30–45	–	3–4	–	Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); De Rosa, Santulli, and Sarasini (2010); Srinivasa et al. (2011); Faruk et al. (2012);Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
Grass fiber
Bagasse (BGF)	55.2	16.8	25.3	–	–	–	Faruk et al. (2012); Tri-Dung (2018)
Bamboo (BMF)	26–60	30	21–31	1.7–1.9	–	–	Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
(–) no data

Table 2. Properties of several natural (plant) fibers and commonly used synthetic (mineral and carbon) fibers.

Type of fiber	Density (g/cm^3)	Elongation to break (%)	Tensile strength (MPa)	Young’s modulus (GPa)	Moisture absorption (%)	References
Bast fiber
Jute (JF)	1.3–1.5	1.5–1.8	393–800	10–30	12.5–13.7	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Kenaf (KF)	0.6–1.5	1.5–6.9	223–1191	11–60	–	Faruk et al. (2012); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Industrial hemp (HF)	1.4–1.5	1.6	550–900	70	6.2–12	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Das and Kalita (2014); Rajak et al. (2019)
Flax (FF)	1.4–1.5	1.2–3.2	345–1500	27.6–80.0	7–12	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Rajak et al. (2019)
Ramie (RF)	1.5	2.0–3.8	220–938	44–128	7.5–17	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Shah (2013); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Leaf fiber
Abaca/manila (ABF)	1.5	1–10	400–1100	6.2–31.0	10–12	Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Bledzki et al. (2014); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018)
Sisal (SIF)	1.3–1.5	2–14	400–700	9–38	2–14	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Seed fiber
Cotton (COF)	1.5–1.6	3–10	287–597	5.5–12.6	8–25	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Fruit fiber
Coir (CCF)	1.2	15–30	175–220	4–6	10	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Faruk et al. (2012); Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Grass fiber
Bagasse (BGF)	1.2	1.1	20–290	17–27.1	–	Faruk et al. (2012); Tri-Dung (2018)
Bamboo (BMF)	0.6–1.5	1.3–3.2	140–575	11–40	7–11	Faruk et al. (2012); Shah (2013); Rajak et al. (2019)
Synthetic fiber
E-glass	2.5	2.5–3.0	2000 – 3500	70–73	0.0	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Brouwer (2000a); Kozlowski, Wladyka-Przybylak, and Kicinska Jakubowska (2008); Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
S-glass	2.5	2.8	4570	86	0.0	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Aramide (normal)	1.4	3.3–3.7	3000 – 3150	63–67	0.0	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Das and Kalita (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Carbon (standard)	1.4	1.4–1.8	4000	230–240	0.0	Bledzki and Gassan (1999); Das and Kalita (2014)
(–) no data

Table 3. Raw material price (USD/1 t), energy volume necessary to produce 1 t of raw material (GJ/1 t) – natural plant fibers (NPF) and synthetic (mineral and carbon) fibers (Scheibe 2022.).

Type of fi`ber	Price (USD/1 t)	Energy (GJ/1 t)
Bast fiber
Jute	400–1 500 (av. 950)	4
Kenaf	300–500 (av. 400)	3.5
Industrial hemp	1 000–1 900 (av. 1 450)	4
Flax	2 100–4 200 (av. 3 150)	4.5
Ramie	2 000	4
Abaca/Manila	200–500 (av. 350)	3.5
Sisal	600–700 (av. 650)	3.5
Cotton	1 500–4 200 (av. 2 850)	4.5
Coir	200–500 (av. 350)	3.5
Bagasse	400–700 (av. 550)	4
Bamboo	500	3.5
Synthetic fiber
E-glass	1 600–3 300	30
S-glass	1 600–3 300	30
Carbon (standard)	1 900–4 400	130
Aramide (USA)	28 600–33 100	320
Aramide (beyond USA)	30 900–55 100	320

Table 4. Comparative analysis of the characteristics of mineral (glass) fibers and natural (plant) fibers.

Property	Natural (plant) fibers (NPF)	Mineral (E-glass) fibers (GF)	References
Density (g/cm^3)	Low	High	De Rosa, Santulli, and Sarasini (2010); Srinivasa et al. (2011); Shah (2013); Das and Kalita (2014); Bledzki et al. (2014); Tri-Dung (2018); Rajak et al. (2019)
Young’s modulus (GPa)	Comparable	Comparable
Tensile strength (MPa)	Low	High
Elongation at rupture (%)	Comparable	Comparable
Impact absorption	High	Low
Surface cracking	Soft, elastic	Hard, sharp
Humidity absorption (%)	Yes/no	No
Chemical modification required	Yes	No
Renewability	Yes	No
Health hazard	Low	High
Biodegradability	Yes	No
Energy recycling	Yes	No
Raw material/mat/cloth Price	Low	High

Figure 2. World production of natural (plant) fibers in 2020, 2021 pre. and 2022 est (DNFI 2022).

Figure 3. Hemp on the Tibetan plateau near Qinghai Lake (3196 m), cannabis varieties, and leaf size of Cannabis varieties.

Figure 4. Historical map of the spread of industrial hemp/cannabis in the world (Warf 2014).

Table 5. Genesis of the distant past of hemp/cannabis in archaeological terms BC.

Period	Description/Archeological Artefact/Application	References
Approx. 28 000 000 BC	Hemp and hop evolve from a common ancestor	Warf (2014)
160 000 BC	First human contact with hemp	Warf (2014)
26 000 BC	First human cultivation of hemp in South-East Asia	Warf (2014)
12 000 BC	First large-scale human cultivation of hemp; Emergence of agriculture	Warf (2014)
10 000 BC	First evidence of using hemp was found in today’s Taiwan. Hemp cord was used by potters in a Taiwanese village of Sate	Warf (2014)
8 000 BC	Hemp cord found in today’s Taiwan, used in pottery	Warf (2014); Konopie (2018)
7 500 BC	Hemp arrival in Europe (archeological findings in Germany, Switzerland, and Romania)	Warf (2014); Stonerchef (2020)
6 000 BC	Hemp seed and oil used in China for food production	Warf (2014); Konopie (2018); Stonerchef (2020)
4 000 BC	In China, hemp or its seeds constitute the so-called ‘Five Grains.” Pan-p’o village is the cradle of hemp textile industry.	Konopie (2018); Stonerchef (2020) (2021)
2 737 BC	First documented use of hemp as medication in Chinese Pharmacopoeia	Warf (2014); Konopie (2018); Stonerchef (2020)
2 700 BC	There is a mention in Genesis, the Old testament, about “making oil and frankincense”	Warf (2014); Stonerchef (2020)
2 000 to 1 000 BC	Atharvaveda (c. 1500 to 1000 BCE), Hindu holy scripture, mentions “bhang” (meaning dried leaves, stems, and seeds of hemp) as one of India’s five sacred plants used in Ayurvedic medicine.	Warf (2014); Konopie (2018); Stonerchef (2020)
1 550 to 1 500 BC	Hemp used in medicine in ancient Egypt (according to Ebers Papyrus)	Warf (2014); Stonerchef (2020)
1 500 BC	Hemp farming in China for food and fiber and the Scythians made thin hemp fabric	Warf (2014); Konopie (2018)
1 000 BC	Female hemp bud pollen was found in fire places on the Volga. The Scythians burnt it to infuse the smoke.	Warf (2014); Konopie (2018)
900 BC	Assyrian people used hemp to treat mental diseases	Stonerchef (2020)
700 to 600 BC	Hemp mentioned in ancient Persian “Zend-Avesta”	Stonerchef (2020)
700 to 300 BC	Hemp seeds left by the Scythians in royal burial grounds as offering	Konopie (2018); Stonerchef (2020)
600 BC	First evidence of hemp used in Russia for rope production in construction	Konopie (2018)
550 BC	The word “hemp” mentioned by Zoroaster, the Persian prophet, in a dissertation about over 10 000 medicinal plants	Konopie (2018)
500 BC	Burial site of a Scythian couple accompanied by a bagful of hemp seeds in Pazyryk, Kazakhstan; Ancestors’ urn containing hemp seeds and leaves found close to Stuttgart, Germany.	Konopie (2018); Warf (2014)
450 BC	Herodotus, the Greek historian regarded to be the father of history, described the use of hemp seeds in burial ceremonies in Northern Europe.	Stonerchef (2020)
430 BC	Herodotus collates in “The Histories” his findings about recreational and ritual use of cannabis by the Scythians	Stonerchef (2020)
450 to 200 BC	The Greeks and Romans used hemp for medicinal purposes	Stonerchef (2020)
200 BC	Emergence of hemp rope in Greece	Konopie (2018)
100 BC	China became the world’s first producer of hemp paper. The first written records on hemp paper were also found in China.	Warf (2014); Stonerchef (2020)
100 BC to 1 AD	Artefacts – Taoist commentary to Pen-ts’ao Ching, a compendium of Chinese medication	Konopie (2018);Stonerchef (2020)

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