Volatile organic compound and particulate emissions from the production and use of thermoplastic biocomposite 3D printing filaments

Figures & data

Table 1. Material compositions and filament extruder zone temperatures.

Material	Composition	Temperature settings (°C)
Transparent PLA	100 w-% PLA	180/185/190/180
Formi 20	20 w-% cellulose fibers, 80 w-% PLA	180/185/180/170
Formi 40	40 w-% cellulose fibers, 60 w-% PLA	180/185/180/170
BC 15%	15 w-% wood powder, 85 w-% PLA	195/185/185/185
BC 30%	30 w-% wood powder, 70 w-% PLA	200/195/185/185

w-% = percentage in weight.

BC = custom biocomposite.

Table 2. The average air concentrations of the most common VOCs, cumulative other VOCs and TVOC (µg/m³), and TVOC emission rates (S_TVOC, µg/min).

Description	1-Nonanol	1-Propanol	Acetic acid	Furfural	Lactide	Hexanal	3-Carene	α-Pinene	D-Limonene	Isoprene	p-Cymene	Other	TVOC	STVOC
Filament production: PLA	3 (3)	2 (0)	3 (2)	0 (0)	22 (16)	0 (2)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	17 (13)	42 (34)	2.6 × 10^2
Filament production: Formi 20	2 (5)	0 (2)	10 (11)	2 (0)	10 (9)	2 (2)	3 (2)	2 (3)	0 (2)	0 (0)	4 (3)	15 (14)	48 (48)	3.0 × 10^2
Filament production: Formi 40	3 (3)	2 (3)	5 (5)	3 (6)	13 (13)	0 (3)	6 (3)	5 (5)	3 (5)	3 (2)	4 (2)	11 (18)	56 (62)	3.5 × 10^2
Filament production: BC 15%	3 (2)	2 (0)	6 (4)	3 (0)	15 (18)	2 (2)	5 (5)	3 (3)	0 (2)	2 (0)	2 (3)	7 (13)	46 (48)	2.9 × 10^2
Filament production: BC 30%	2 (2)	0 (2)	12 (8)	4 (5)	16 (14)	2 (0)	6 (6)	4 (5)	3 (3)	3 (3)	3 (4)	5 (14)	58 (63)	3.6 × 10^2
3D printing: PLA	8 (7)	5 (6)	4 (7)	0 (0)	16 (14)	3 (3)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	0 (0)	21 (22)	55 (56)	3.4 × 10^2
3D printing: Formi 20	3 (4)	4 (5)	4 (4)	2 (0)	7 (6)	2 (3)	3 (3)	7 (3)	3 (3)	0 (0)	0 (0)	23 (17)	54 (45)	3.4 × 10^2
3D printing: Formi 40	3 (4)	4 (4)	5 (4)	0 (2)	9 (7)	3 (3)	2 (2)	4 (2)	6 (6)	2 (2)	2 (2)	13 (4)	50 (41)	3.1 × 10^2
3D printing: BC 15%	5 (4)	5 (2)	4 (3)	0 (2)	9 (8)	3 (2)	2 (2)	3 (2)	5 (3)	0 (2)	2 (3)	19 (17)	54 (44)	3.4 × 10^2
3D printing: BC 30%	4 (4)	3 (3)	4 (4)	2 (0)	15 (8)	3 (2)	3 (2)	4 (3)	5 (5)	2 (2)	2 (3)	15 (8)	47 (39)	2.9 × 10^2

Average concentrations of personal samples shown in parentheses.

All presented values are background-corrected.

S_TVOC is calculated using the TVOC values obtained from a stationary point (the values without parentheses).

Table 3. The measured carbonyl compound air concentrations (µg/m³).

Description	Formaldehyde	Acetaldehyde	Acetone	2-Butanone	Hexanal	Other	Total
Filament production: PLA	6	6	25	20	2	1	60
Filament production: Formi 20	7	5	47	16	2	1	78
Filament production: Formi 40	7	3	40	18	1	1	70
Filament production: BC 15%	6	5	42	15	1	2	71
Filament production: BC 30%	8	3	54	24	1	1	91
3D printing: PLA	40	27	83	70	16	17	253
3D printing: Formi 20	37	24	69	73	13	14	230
3D printing: Formi 40	32	20	55	58	12	13	190
3D printing: BC 15%	41	32	67	52	18	19	229
3D printing: BC 30%	36	27	70	53	15	15	216

All presented values are background-corrected and obtained from a stationary point.

Table 4. The measured particle air concentrations and UFP emission rates (SUFP).

	UFP Cn (#/cm^3)					PM2.5 Cm (µg/m^3)				PM10 Cm (µg/m^3)
Description	Min	Max	Average	SD	SUFP (#/min)	Min	Max	Average	SD	Min	Max	Average	SD
Filament production: PLA	0.15 × 10^2	2.30 × 10^2	0.85 × 10^2	0.45 × 10^2	5.3 × 10^8	0.1	2.8	0.5	0.4	5	85	10	15
Filament production: Formi 20	1.35 × 10^2	2.00 × 10^2	1.65 × 10^2	0.20 × 10^2	1.0 × 10^9	0.1	1.0	0.4	0.2	<5	75	10	10
Filament production: Formi 40	0.65 × 10^2	1.85 × 10^2	1.30 × 10^2	0.40 × 10^2	8.1 × 10^8	0.1	0.5	0.2	0.1	<5	60	5	10
Filament production: BC 15%	5.60 × 10^2	7.65 × 10^2	6.55 × 10^2	0.50 × 10^2	4.1 × 10^9	0.2	0.5	0.3	0.1	<5	60	20	10
Filament production: BC 30%	8.00 × 10^2	1.25 × 10^3	1.05 × 10^3	1.00 × 10^2	6.6 × 10^9	0.3	2.1	0.6	0.3	<5	60	10	10
3D printing: PLA	0.20 × 10^2	1.41 × 10^3	6.25 × 10^2	3.30 × 10^2	3.9 × 10^9	1.2	2.9	2.0	0.3	<5	10	5	<5
3D printing: Formi 20	0.15 × 10^2	2.89 × 10^3	1.20 × 10^3	8.90 × 10^2	7.5 × 10^9	0.1	2.5	1.2	0.6	<5	10	5	<5
3D printing: Formi 40	1.00 × 10^3	2.78 × 10^3	1.74 × 10^3	4.30 × 10^2	1.1 × 10^10	1.0	2.6	1.7	0.3	<5	20	5	<5
3D printing: BC 15%	0.20 × 10^2	3.42 × 10^3	2.09 × 10^3	8.10 × 10^2	1.3 × 10^10	1.4	3.1	2.2	0.3	<5	5	5	<5
3D printing: BC 30%	3.50 × 10^2	7.60 × 10^2	6.05 × 10^2	0.75 × 10^2	3.8 × 10^9	0.2	3.1	1.4	0.7	<5	10	5	<5

All presented values are background-corrected and obtained from a stationary point.

Data availability statement

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials and are shared upon request.