(Forgotten) Landscape of Imperial War Memories in a Colonial City: Hong Kong's Cenotaph and Beyond (1920s – 1960s)

Abstract

This research investigates the spatial landscape of Hong Kong's earliest imperial war monument, the Cenotaph, from the city's early colonial past to the 1960s. Hong Kong's Cenotaph, which is an almost exact replica of London's Whitehall Cenotaph, reveals how the British Empire established its imperial visual network in its colonies in the early 20th century. However, the prewar visual representation of the royal authorities through the statues of royal members in the colony's central square was replaced by politically neutral designs for civic use after the end of WWII. Through the exploration of the change of meaning of this monumental space in relation to its neighboring environment, I argue that the end of WWII, the social upheavals in the 1960s and the consequent “depoliticization” of British colonial rule have transformed the early war commemorative artefacts in Hong Kong, marginalizing them in the city's major narrative.

Keywords:

• Cenotaph
• Hong Kong
• war monument
• British colonial rule
• Statue Square
• World War II
• 1967 riots
• Remembrance Sunday

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTOR

PAN Lu is Assistant Professor, Department of Chinese Culture, Hong Kong Polytechnic University. She authored In-Visible Palimpsest: Memory, Space and Modernity in Berlin and Shanghai (Bern: Peter Lang, 2016) and Aestheticizing Public Space: Street Visual Politics in East Asian Cities (Bristol and Chicago: Intellect, 2015). Her new book Image, Imagination and Imaginarium: Remapping World War II Monuments in Greater China is going to be published by Palgrave Macmillian in 2021.

Correspondence to: Lu Pan, Dept. of Chinese Culture, Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Email: [email protected]

Notes

1 Encyclopaedia Britannica, “cenotaph,” available at: https://www.britannica.com/technology/cenotaph (Accessed July 15, 2018).

2 A full list of the wall memorials and images can be found in, T. Skelton and G. Gliddon, Lutyens and the Great War (London: Frances Lincoln, 2008), 166–180.

3 J. Geurst, Cemeteries of the Great War by Sir Edwin Lutyens (Rotterdam: 010 publishers, 2010), 76. And A. Greenberg, “Lutyens's Cenotaph,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, vol. 48, no. 1 (1989): 12–13.

4 Greenberg, “Lutyens's Cenotaph,” 5.

5 Ibid.

6 Conclusion former reference, October 14, 1920, CAB 23/22/17, National Archives, London, UK.

7 J. Edkins, “The Cenotaph,” in Trauma and the Memory of Politics. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 70.

8 A fourth “pirated” Cenotaph is found in Auckland, New Zealand, in front of the Auckland War Memorial Museum. The architect team of the museum Grierson, Aimer, and Draffin built a downscaled replica based on the Whitehall cenotaph. They could not afford to buy the blueprints from Lutyens and thus copied the image of the Whitehall Cenotaph from newsreel films. The Auckland cenotaph was unveiled in 1929, together with the opening of the museum. See “Auckland War Memorial Museum,” available at: https://discover.stqry.com/v/auckland-war-memorial-museum/s/63db9169c2db8753ef79d394cad49780 (Accessed March 16, 2018). And Skelton and Gliddon, Lutyens and the Great War, 178–179.

9 See W. Cohen, “Symbols of Power: Statues in Nineteenth-Century Provincial France,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 31, no. 3 (1989): 491–513. And S. Ravi, “Modernity, Imperialism and the Pleasures of Travel: The Continental Hotel in Saigon,” Asian Studies Review, vol. 32, no. 4 (2008): 475–490.

10 P.K.M. Van Roosmalen, “Confronting Built Heritage: Shifting Perspectives on Colonial Architecture in Indonesia,” ABE Journal, no. 3 (2013): Urn:issn: 2275–6639.

11 K. E. Teather and Chun Shing Chow, “Identity and Place: The Testament of Designated Heritage in Hong Kong,” International Journal of Heritage Studies, vol. 9, no. 2 (2003): 93–115, and J. Henderson, “Heritage, Identity and Tourism in Hong Kong,” International Journal of Heritage Studies, vol. 7, no. 3  (2001): 219–235.

12 H. Grace, “Monuments and the Face of Time: Distortions of Scale and Asynchrony in Postcolonial Hong Kong,” Postcolonial Studies, vol. 10, no. 4 (2007): 467–483. Tracey L.-D Lu, “Heritage Conservation in Post-colonial Hong Kong,” International Journal of Heritage Studies, vol. 15, no. 2–3 (2009): 258–272.

13 Sidney C. H. Cheung, “Remembering through Space: The Politics of Heritage in Hong Kong,” International Journal of Heritage Studies, vol. 9, no. 1 (2003): 7–26.

14 In 1946, a new holiday known as Remembrance Sunday, a Commonwealth memorial day substituted Armistice Day, which is commemorated for the end of WWI in France, UK, and Hong Kong. See “Holiday Bill 1946,” Hong Kong Legislative Council, 1946, 247–248, available at: http://library.legco.gov.hk:1443/record=b1030969 (Accessed July 15, 2018).

15 On Hong Kong's 1966–67 riots see Gary K. W. Cheung, Hong Kong's Watershed: The 1967 Riots (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2009) and I. Scott, Political Change and the Crisis of Legitimacy in Hong Kong (Honululu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989).

16 Other members included Lau Chu-pak, Ho Tung, Robert Kotewall, J.P. Braga and Herny Pollock.

17 V. England, “Who Was this Man Chater?,” South China Morning Post, December 16, 2007, available at: https://www-scmp-com.ezproxy.lb.polyu.edu.HongKong/node/619754 (Accessed June 15, 2018).

18 S. Bard, Voices from the Past: Hong Kong 1842–1918 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2002).

19 Chater was also the founder of St. John's Cathedral, which later became one of the Remembrance Day ritual space after WWII. More see S. Wolfendale, Imperial to International: A History of St John's Cathedral (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2013).

20 Desmond Hui, Selected Historic Buildings and Sites in Central District (Hong Kong: Antiquities and Monuments Office of the Leisure and Cultural Services Dept., c2004), 16.

21 W. S. Tam, “Public Space and British Colonial Power: The Transformation of Hong Kong Statue Square, 1890s–1970s,” Master of Philosophy, Lingnan University, 2014, 25.

22 See Tam, “Public Space and British Colonial Power: The Transformation of Hong Kong Statue Square, 1890s–1970s,” 31–36.

23 Ibid., 40.

24 Ibid., 49.

25 More on Chinese Labor Corps, see Brian C. Fawcett, “The Chinese Labour Corps in France, 1917–1921,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch, vol. 40 (2000): 33–111; K. Stevens, “British Chinese Labour Corps Labourers Buried in England,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Hong Kong Branch), vol. 29 (1989): 390; G. Q. Xu, Strangers on the Western Front: Chinese Workers in the Great War (Cambridge, MS: Harvard University Press, 2011); and J. Hayes, “A Short History of Military Volunteers in Hong Kong,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Hong Kong Branch), vol. 11 (1971): 151–171.

26 Tam, “Public Space and British Colonial Power: The Transformation of Hong Kong Statue Square, 1890s–1970s,” 57.

27 S. Yui-Sang Tsang, A Modern History of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2004), 87.

28 “Statue Square and the Cenotaph,” in Encl. 3: Cenotaph, August 9, 1978, PRO-REF-080, National Archives, London, UK.

29 “Statue Square and the Cenotaph,” in Encl. 3: Cenotaph, August 9, 1978, PRO-REF-080, National Archives, London, UK. H.E. stands for His Excellency.

30 “Statue Square and the Cenotaph,” in Encl. 3: Cenotaph, August 9, 1978, PRO-REF-080, National Archives, London, UK.

31 Cenotaph, Whitehall: reproductions, 1919–1929, Work 20/205, National Archives, London, UK.

32 The letter from the Governor to the Duke of Devonshire (Unveiling of Cenotaph on Empire Day), June 1, 1923, K.G. C.O. 129/480/159, National Archives, London, UK.

33 “Statue Square and the Cenotaph,” in Encl. 3: Cenotaph, August 9, 1978, PRO-REF-080, National Archives, London, UK.

34 Y. G. Xie, San nian ling ba ge yue de kunan [三年零八個月的苦難] (Hong Kong: Ming Pao Publication, 1994), 428, and Hong Kong News, December 21 and 23, 1942.

35 Hong Kong News, January 20, 1942.

36 Tam, “Public Space and British Colonial Power: The Transformation of Hong Kong Statue Square, 1890s–1970s,” 75.

37 The Queen Victoria Statue, for example, was found in 1946 in Osaka with only one arm left. See Associated press, “Queen Victoria Found,” in China Mail, September 17, 1946, Multimedia Information System Hong Kong Public Libraries, available at: https://mmis.HongKongpl.gov.HongKong/basic-search: “From the murky shadows of the Osaka Army Arsenal, the Japanese Government has produced the much-sought-after Statue of Queen Victoria, which was looted from Hong Kong by the Japanese Army.” (Accessed April 19, 2018).

38 Tam, “Public Space and British Colonial Power: The Transformation of Hong Kong Statue Square, 1890s–1970s,” 79–81.

39 Ibid., 79–81.

40 “Ten recommendations made by the Public Monuments Committee members at their first meeting,” August 28, 1946, HONG KONGRS70-3-364, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

41 Despatches-Enclosure 9: Notes on the Siege of Hong Kong by Colonial Office, April 23, 1942 – September 28, 1943, CO 129/590, National Archives, London, UK.

42 Tam, “Public Space and British Colonial Power: The Transformation of Hong Kong Statue Square, 1890s–1970s,” 82; And “Situation in Hong Kong” note of MacDougall on Phyllis Harrop report to Eden, May 27, 1942, CO 129 590/23, National Archives, London, UK.

43 “Commemoration of The Liberation of Hong Kong: thanksgiving services and celebrations,” 1946, HONG KONGRS41-1-821, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

44 Ibid.

45 “Remembrance Sunday: National Day of Remembrance for the wars of 1914–18 & 1939–45,” 1946, HONG KONGRS41-1-823, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

46 Hayes, “A Short History of Military Volunteers in Hong Kong,” 161.

47 Ibid., 160.

48 Ibid., 161.

49 Ibid.

50 “Remembrance Sunday: National Day of Remembrance for the wars of 1914–18 & 1939–45,” 1946, HONG KONGRS41-1-823, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China. Invitees included representatives of the Hong Kong Chinese Military Service, Chinese members of Justice of the Peace, St. John's Ambulance Brigade, Boy Scouts, AR wardens, Honorary Secretary for Chinese affairs, Honorary Chinese members of Councils, Chinese members of Urban Council, Senior Chinese member of the Hong Kong VDC or Hong Kong PR on behalf of all Chinese Essential Service Workers during WWI; principal directors of the Tung Wah Hospital; principal directors of the Po Leung Kuk; Chairman of the Chinese Chamber of Commerce; Chairmen of the Chinese Engineer Institute on behalf of all trade unions, and students of the colony.

51 “Remembrance Sunday: National Day of Remembrance for the wars of 1914–18 & 1939–45,” 1946, HONG KONGRS41-1-823, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China. Apart from the main ceremonies on the Remembrance Day at the three venues, commemorative rituals were also regularly held for other foreign communities in other venues in Hong Kong. For example, the Canadian and American rituals were held at Sai Wan War Cemetery, French Memorial Day, and Anzacs Day at the Cenotaph for Australians and New Zealanders.

52 See “Chinese War Memorial,” HONG KONGRS41-1-1885, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

53 See “Chinese War Memorial.” Apart from the main ceremonies on the Remembrance Day at the three venues, commemorative rituals were also regularly held for other foreign communities in other venues Hong Kong. For example, the Canadian and American rituals were held at Sai Wan War Cemetery, French Memorial Day, and Anzacs Day at the Cenotaph for Australians and New Zealanders. (This by and large repeats footnote 45).

54 “War Dead Honored,” in Tiger Standard, November 14, 1966, HONG KONGRS70-1-234, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

55 The 1966 riots in Hong Kong were the prelude to a long period (changed because of the abstract nouns that follow) of disquiet, political disturbance, and protests that continued until 1967. The catalyst of the 1966 riots was the government's decision to raise the fare of the Star Ferry, a daily transportation means used by working-class Hong Kong residents to travel between Hong Kong Island and Kowloon, by 25 percent.

56 “Memo from the Public Works Department to the Colonial Secretary (30th),” June 1950, HONG KONGRS 337-3-1, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

57 Tam, “Public Space and British Colonial Power: The Transformation of Hong Kong Statue Square, 1890s–1970s,” 88.

58 Hong Kong Government, A Historical and Architectural Appraisal of Queen's Pier, Central, September 27, 2007, Annex B, Hong Kong: the government of Hong Kong special administrative region.

59 Charlie Q. L. Xue, Hong Kong Architecture 1945–2015: From Colonial to Global (Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016), 45.

60 “Draft Press Release of New Public Garden for Statue Square,” 1964, HONG KONGRS70-3-364, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

61 “Public Garden to Be Built In Statue Square” [皇后像廣場實行闢新花園], in Sing Tao Man Pao, July 10, 1964, HONG KONGRS70-3-364, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

62 “More Gardens and Public Squares for Hong Kong” [港九需要更多花園與廣場], in Wah Kiu Yat Po, September 24, 1965, HONG KONGRS70-3-364, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

63 “Opening of New Statue Square, H.E. The Governor to Unveil Commemorative Plaque,” May 24, 1966, HONG KONGRS70-3-364. Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

64 “Hong Kong government (not Government?) Daily Information Bulletin Supplement,” May 26, 1966, HONG KONGRS70-3-364. Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

65 “Statue Square Garden-an anonymity letter to the editor of South China Morning Post,” July 14, 1964, HONG KONGRS70-3-364, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

66 “Opening of New Statue Square by H.E. The Governor on Daily Information Bulletin Supplement,” May 26, 1966, HONG KONGRS70-3-364, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

67 “Waterfront Garden Popular,” in Hong Kong Star, June 1, 1966, HONG KONGRS70-3-364, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

68 “Spitfire on Display at the Cenotaph,” available at: https://gwulo.com/atom/11554 (Accessed April 19, 2018).

69 “Color TV at Statue Square,” in South China Morning Post, June 28, 1968, HONG KONGRS70-3-364, Hong Kong Public Records Office, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.

70 It is still controversial even up to the present moment when this article is written to call the social unrests “riots,” which were defined and condemned by the British Hong Kong government but were described by pro-PRC media in Hong Kong, such as Ta Kung Pao and Wen Wei Po, “patriotic” and “heroic” acts.

71 Charlie Q. L. Xue, Hong Kong Architecture 1945–2015: From Colonial to Global, 41.

72 Information Services Department, “Chapter 10: Bounding into the ‘70s,’” GIS Through the Years. Information Services Department, available at: http://www.info.gov.HongKong/isd/40th/10.html (Accessed April 19, 2018).

73 John M. Carroll, A Concise History of Hong Kong (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 172.

74 “Seqing fengqi jingren: Fating ri shen wu zong: Qizhong liang zong feili an shi ‘Xianggang jie’ chanwu” [色情風氣驚人: 法庭日審五宗: 其中兩宗非禮案是“香港節”產物], Tai Kung Po, December 17, 1969.