International society of sports nutrition position stand: energy drinks and energy shots

Figures & data

Table 1. Prevalence and quantities of ingredients (disclosed and undisclosed) included in bestselling energy drinks and energy shots (n = 75). Reproduced from Jagim et al. 2021 [2], which is licensed under an open access Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license.

Ingredient	Overall Prevalence (%)	Prevalence in Undisclosed Quantity (%)	Prevalence in Listed Quantity (%)	Mean ± SD Listed Quantity
Caffeine (mg)	100	0	100	174 ± 81
Taurine	37.3	37.3	0	N/A
Ginseng	30.7	30.7	0	N/A
Guarana	25.3	25.3	0	N/A
Carnitine	16.0	16.0	0	N/A
Choline (mg)	2.7	0	2.7	267 ± 330
Vitamin B1 (% of DV)	1.3	0	1.3	25.0
Vitamin B2 (% of DV)	8.0	0	8.0	133 ± 81
Vitamin B5 (% of DV)	37.3	0	37.3	114 ± 77
Vitamin B6 (% of DV)	72.0	0	72	367 ± 648
Folate (mcg)	6.7	0	6.7	258 ± 194
Vitamin B12 (% of DV)	66.7	0	66.7	5,245 ± 10,475
Vitamin C (% of DV)	22.7	0	22.7	59.8 ± 48.7
Vitamin D (% of DV)	2.7	0	2.7	35.0 ± 21.2
Vitamin A (% of DV)	6.7	0	6.7	78.6 ± 86.8
Sodium (mg)	70.7	0	70.7	120 ± 118
Potassium (mg)	34.7	0	34.7	148 ± 197
Magnesium (mg)	12.0	0	12.0	25.4 ± 23.4
Niacin (% of DV)	66.7	0	66.7	121 ± 70
Calcium (mg)	17.3	0	17.3	128 ± 175
Sugars (g)	45.3	0	45.3	19.9 ± 18.2
Tyrosine	22.7	22.7	0	N/A
L-Theanine	17.3	17.3	0	N/A

Table 2. Product class-specific prevalence and quantities of select ingredients included in bestselling energy drinks and energy shots (n = 75). Reproduced from Jagim et al. 2021 [2], which is licensed under an open access Creative Commons CC BY 4.0 license.

	Energy Drinks (n = 55)		Energy Shots (n = 20)
Ingredient	Prevalence in Product Class (% out of 55)	Mean ± SD Listed Quantity	Prevalence in Product Class (% out of 20)	Mean ± SD Listed Quantity
Caffeine (mg)	100	159 ± 74	100	217 ± 87
Vitamin B6 (% of DV)	74.5	165 ± 199	65.0	1,004 ± 1,069
Sodium (mg)	76.4	143.1 ± 120.7	55.0	30.5 ± 32.6
Niacin (% of DV)	70.9	115 ± 70	55.0	143 ± 70
Vitamin B12 (% of DV)	63.6	1,151 ± 4,020	75.0	14,796 ± 14,323
Sugars (g)	52.7	22.0 ± 18.9	25.0	7.6 ± 4.6
Vitamin B5 (% of DV)	47.3	111 ± 78	10.0	150 ± 71
Vitamin C (% of DV)	25.5	63.6 ± 49.2	15.0	41.7 ± 51.4
Calcium (mg)	18.2	160 ± 189	15.0	19.0 ± 17.8
Magnesium (mg)	12.7	26.1 ± 24.6	10.0	22.8 ± 27.2

Ingredient prevalence represents the proportion of each ingredient per product class.

Table 3. Caffeine content per serving of caffeine containing products.

Beverage	Caffeine (mg)
Energy Drinks [2]	160
RedBull© (12 oz.)	111
BANG© (16 oz.)	300
Coffee (8 oz.)	90
Commercial Coffee (20 oz.)	410
Green Tea (16.9 oz.)	94
Soda (12 oz.)	35
Pre-Workout Supplements [1]	254
Caffeine Capsule	200

Oz = fluid ounces.

Table 4. Force and Power Production Outcomes in Acute Energy Drink and Energy Shot Studies.

Study	Subjects	Design	ED/ES Condition	Timing	Performance Testing Protocol	Results	Ref #
Del Coso et al. 2012a	19 semiprofessional soccer players (21 ± 2 y, 67 ± 2 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Sugar-free Red Bull®) providing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	15s maximal jump test	↑ Jump height	[135]
Del Coso et al. 2012b	12 active participants (30 ± 7 y, 69 ± 10 kg,)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics at 1 and 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. the same drink without caffeine	60 min prior to exercise testing	Half-squat and BP power production with loads from 10 to 100% of 1RM	Ingestion of 1 mg/kg of caffeine did not affect maximal power during the power-load tests with respect to the placebo. 3 mg/kg ↑ maximal power in the half-squat compared to placebo condition (3 mg/kg: 2726 ± 167 vs. Placebo: 2549 ± 161 W) and bench-press (3 mg/kg: 375 ± 33 vs. Placebo: 358 ± 35 W).	[141]
Sünram-Lea et al. 2012	81 firefighter trainees (26 ± 10 y, 80.6 ± 17.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED containing 40 mg caffeine and 50 g carbohydrates vs. ED with 80 mg caffeine and 10.25 g carbohydrates vs. placebo	75 min prior to exercise testing	Handgrip test	↑ Handgrip strength after consumption of ED containing 40 mg caffeine and 50 g carbohydrates	[148]
Eckerson et al. 2013	17 physically active men (21 ± 1 y, 85.5 ± 9.3 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Sugar-free Red Bull®) containing 160 mg caffeine and 2000 mg taurine vs. a caffeine only drink (160 mg) vs. a non-caloric placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	1RM BP	↔ 1RM BP	[151]
Del Coso et al. 2013a	16 elite female rugby players (23 ± 2 y, 66 ± 7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	15s maximal jump test	↑ Power output during jump test	[169]
Abien-Vicen et al. 2014	16 young basketball players (14.9 ± 0.8 y, 73.4 ± 12.4 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	CMVJ test 15s maximal jump test	↑ CMVJ jump height (38.3 ± 4.4 vs. 37.5 ± 4.4 cm) ↑ Jump height in 15s jump test (30.2 ± 3.4 vs. 28.8 ± 3.4 cm).	[134]
Del Coso et al. 2014	15 male volleyball players (21.8 ± 6.9 y, 66 ± 7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Squat Jump CMVJ test 15s maximal jump test	↑ Mean jump height for squat jumps (32.7 ± 4.2 vs. 31.1 ± 4.3 cm) ↑ CMVJ height (37.7 ± 4.4 vs. 35.9 ± 4.6 cm) ↑ Jump height in 15s jump test (30.5 ± 4.6 vs. 29.0 ± 4.0 cm)	[136]
Goel et al. 2014	15 male volleyball players (21.8 ± 6.9 y, 66 ± 7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) providing 2 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Handgrip test	↔ Handgrip strength	[149]
Kammerer et al. 2014	14 male soldiers	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) containing 80 mg caffeine and 1000 mg taurine vs. drink containing 80 mg caffeine vs. drink containing 1000 mg taurine vs. drink containing 80 mg caffeine and 1000 mg taurine vs. placebo	Information unavailable	Handgrip test Vertical jump test	↔ Handgrip strength ↔ Vertical jump height	[145]
Lara et al. 2014	18 female soccer players (21 ± 2 y, 57.8 ± 7.7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	CMVJ test	↑ CMVJ height (27.4 ± 3.8 vs. 26.6 ± 4.0 cm)	[138]
Abian et al. (2015)	16 male elite badminton players (25.4 ± 7.3 y, 71.8 ± 7.9 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Squat Jump CMVJ test Handgrip test	↑ Squat jump height (36.4 ± 4.3 vs. 34.5 ± 4.7 cm) and squat jump peak power ↑ CMVJ height (39.5 ± 5.1 vs. 37.7 ± 4.5 cm) and CMVJ peak power ↔ Handgrip strength	[133]
Lara et al. 2015	14 male sprint swimmers (20.2 ± 2.6 y, 73.9 ± 8.3 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) or placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	CMVJ test Handgrip test	↑ CMVJ height (50.9 ± 5.2 vs. 49.4 ± 5.3 cm) ↑ Handgrip strength with the right hand (481 ± 49 vs. 498 ± 43 N) but not left hand	[139]
Gallo-Salazar et al. 2015	14 young elite-level tennis players (16 ± 1 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Handgrip test	↑ Handgrip strength (4.2% ± 7.2%) following consumption of ED compared to placebo	[147]
Perez-Lopez et al. 2015	13 elite female volleyball players (25.2 ± 4.8 y, 64.4 ± 7.6 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Spike jump Blocking jump Squat jump CMVJ test Manual dynamometry	↑ Squat jump height (29.4 ± 3.6 vs. 28.1 ± 3.2 cm) ↑ CMVJ height (33.1 ± 4.5 vs. 32.0 ± 4.6 cm) ↑ Spike jump height (44.4 ± 5.0 vs. 43.3 ± 4.7 cm) ↑ Blocking jump height (36.1 ± 5.1 vs. 35.2 ± 5.1 cm) ↔ Manual dynamometry	[140]
Campbell et al. 2016	19 college-aged males and females (22.4 ± 3.2 y, 69.0 ± 12.7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (VPX Redline®, Power Rush: Caffeine Anhydrous 175 mg, Vitamin C 60 mg, Niacin 5 mg, Vitamin B12 0.0625 mg, Vitamin B6 0.75 mg, Folic Acid 0.2 mg, N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine 125 mg, Beta-Alanine 12.5 mg, DL-Phenylalanine 0.325 mg, L-Phenylalanine 0.325 mg) vs. placebo	30 min prior to exercise testing	CMVJ test	↔ CMVJ height	[142]
Astley et al. 2018	15 resistance-trained males (21.0 ± 0.3 y; 79.6 ± 1.8 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (caffeine (64 mg/200 mL) [2.5 mg∙kg BW^−1] caffeine, soda water, carbohydrates 71 g, taurine (800 mg/200 mL), glucoronolactone (48 mg/200 mL), inositol (40 mg / 200 mL), natural extract of guarana and vitamins (B3, B5, B2, B6, B12) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	BP RTF (80% 1RM) Unilateral knee extension RTF (80% 1RM) Handgrip test	↑ BP repetitions (10.2 ± 0.4 reps vs. 8.1 ± 0.5 reps) ↑ Unilateral knee extension repetitions (11.5 ± 0.9 vs. 9.5 ± 0.8 reps) ↑ handgrip strength in the right (53.7 ± 1.5 vs. 47.7 ± 1.6 kg) and left hand (52.9 ± 1.5 vs. 45.9 ± 1.3 kg)	[150]
Jacobson et al. 2018	36 male and female undergraduate students (23.07 ± 2.36 y, 76.9 ± 16.7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (5-hour ENERGY, Living Essentials: 57 ml containing 240 mg caffeine, taurine, glucuronolactone, malic acid, N-Acetyl L tyrosine, L-phenylalanine, and citicoline labeled as “Energy Blend – 2000 mg”.) vs. placebo	30 min prior to exercise testing	CMVJ test	↔ CMVJ height	[144]
Chtorou et al. 2019	19 male physical education students (21.2 ± 1.2 y, 76.6 ± 12.6 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®: 160 mg caffeine and 2 g taurine, 1.2 g glucuronolactone, 54 g carbohydrate, 40 mg niacin, 10 mg pantothenic acid, 10 mg vitamin B6, and 10 μg vitamin B12) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Handgrip test	↑ Handgrip strength (58.2 ± 2.4 vs. 55.5 ± 2.7 kg)	[146]
Harty et al. 2020	16 resistance-trained males (n = 8; 22.4 ± 4.9 y, 78.8 ± 14.0 kg) and females (n = 8; 24.5 ± 4.8 y, 67.5 ± 11.9 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Bang® Keto Coffee: 130 kcal, 300 mg caffeine, 20 g protein) vs. placebo (30 kcal, 11 mg caffeine, 1 g protein)	40 min prior to exercise testing	LP 1RM Maximal isometric and isokinetic squat testing	↔ LP 1RM ↔ Maximal isometric/isokinetic squat performance	[152]

↑ = ED/ES significantly greater (p < 0.05) than control; ↓ = ED/ES significantly less (p < 0.05) than control; ↔ = no significant difference between ED/ES and control; 1RM = 1 repetition maximum; BP = Bench press; CMVJ = Countermovement vertical jump; ED = energy drink; ES = energy shot; g = gram; kg = kilogram; LP = Leg press; mg = milligram; RTF = repetitions to fatigue; y = years; μg = microgram

Table 5. Muscular Endurance and Anaerobic Capacity Outcomes in Acute Energy Drink and Energy Shot Studies.

Study	Subjects	Design	ED/ES Condition	Timing	Performance Testing Protocol	Results	Ref #
Alford et al. 2001	12 healthy male (n = 7) and female (n = 5) subjects, aged 18–30 years; mean of ~23 years	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) containing 80 mg caffeine, 1 g taurine, 600 mg glucuronolactone, 27 g carbohydrates, and 40 mg inositol vs. placebo	30 min prior to exercise testing	30-s WAnT	↑ Time maintained at maximal speed (7.1 ± 0.3 s vs. 5.7 ± 0.4 s)	[161]
Forbes et al. 2007	15 healthy males (n = 11) and females (n = 4) (21 ± 5 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) providing 2 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine vs. isoenergetic placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	3 sets BP RTF; 70% 1RM; 1-min rest intervals Three 30-s WAnT; 2-min rest intervals	↑ Total BP repetitions (34 ± 9 vs. 32 ± 8 reps) ↔ WAnT peak or average power	[153]
Hoffman et al. 2009	12 male strength/power athletes (21.1 ± 1.3 y; 88.6 ± 12.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (VPX Redline®; 158 mg of caffeine) vs. placebo	10 min prior to exercise testing	30-s WAnT	↔ WAnT performance	[158]
Campbell et al. 2010	15 recreationally active males (n = 9) and females (n = 6) (21.7 ± 1.6 y; 75.1 ± 20.2 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED containing 160 mg of caffeine (~2.1 mg∙kg BW^−1) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Two 20-s WAnT	↔ WAnT performance	[157]
Dawes et al. 2011	41 healthy males (21.7 ± 1.74 y; 81.2 ± 10.9 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (VPX Redline®, Power Rush: Caffeine Anhydrous 175 mg, Vitamin C 60 mg, Niacin 5 mg, Vitamin B12 0.0625 mg, Vitamin B6 0.75 mg, Folic Acid 0.2 mg, N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine 125 mg, Beta-Alanine 12.5 mg, DL-Phenylalanine 0.325 mg, L-Phenylalanine 0.325 mg) vs. placebo	30 min prior to exercise testing	Pushup RTF	↑ Total pushup repetitions (12.5% vs. 3.25%)	[155]
Astorino et al. 2012	15 collegiate soccer players (19.5 ± 1.1 y; 63.4 ± 6.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) providing 1.3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine and 1000 mg taurine vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	8 bouts of the modified t-test	↔ Mean sprint time ↔ HR and RPE	[160]
Duncan et al. 2012	13 resistance-trained males (22.7 ± 6.0 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (179 mg caffeine alongside a matrix of the following ingredients: vitamins B3, B6, B9, and B12; tyrosine; taurine; malic acid; and glucuronolactone in a total volume of 1,024 mg combined) vs. placebo.	60 min prior to exercise testing	1 set RTF on BP, deadlift, prone row, and back squat; 60% 1RM	↑ Mean repetitions performed to failure (ED: 20.1 ± 6.3 vs. Placebo: 18.6 ± 5.6 reps)	[154]
Eckerson et al. 2013	17 physically active men (21 ± 1 y, 85.5 ± 9.3 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Sugar-free Red Bull®) containing 160 mg caffeine and 2000 mg taurine vs. a caffeine only drink (160 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	1 set BP RTF; 70% 1RM	↔ Volume load	[151]
Campbell et al. 2016	19 college-aged males and females (22.4 ± 3.2 years, 69.0 ± 12.7 kg body mass)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (VPX Redline®, Power Rush: Caffeine Anhydrous 175 mg, Vitamin C 60 mg, Niacin 5 mg, Vitamin B12 0.0625 mg, Vitamin B6 0.75 mg, Folic Acid 0.2 mg, N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine 125 mg, Beta-Alanine 12.5 mg, DL-Phenylalanine 0.325 mg, L-Phenylalanine 0.325 mg) vs. placebo.	30 min prior to exercise testing	YMCA bench press test Curl up test Repeated sprint test	↔ Bench press repetitions ↔ Curl up performance ↔ Sprint speed	[142]
Magrini et al. 2016	31 healthy (males, n = 23; females, n = 8) Placebo (Age: 21.2 ± 1.7 yrs.; Height: 169.0 ± 13.2 cm; Weight: 78.6 ± 17.9 kg; Body fat%: 16.65 ± 5.6 %) and ED (Age: 23.2 ± 2.6 yrs.; Height: 167.7 ± 10.4 cm; Weight: 75.7 ± 14.9 kg; Body fat%: 14.91 ± 4.7 %)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, parallel design	ED containing 158 mg caffeine and proprietary blend of other ingredients vs. placebo	30 min prior to exercise testing	Pushup RTF	↔ Pushup repetitions	[156]
Zileli et al. 2019	18 male amateur soccer players (21.0 ± 1.6 y, 70.6 ± 9.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) containing 80 mg caffeine, 1000 mg taurine, 600 mg glucuronolactone, 27 g carbohydrates, and 40 mg inositol vs. apple juice placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	WAnT	↔ WAnT performance	[159]
Harty et al. 2020	16 resistance-trained males (n = 8; 22.4 ± 4.9 y; 78.8 ± 14.0 kg and females (n = 8; 24.5 ± 4.8 y; 67.5 ± 11.9 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Bang® Keto Coffee) containing 130 kcal, 300 mg caffeine, 20 g protein vs. placebo (30 kcal, 11 mg caffeine, 1 g protein)	40 min prior to exercise testing	LP RTF; 2x body mass for males/1.5x body mass for females	↔ LP repetitions	[152]
Reis et al. 2021	12 males (22 ± 2.6 y, 74.4 ± 5.5 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED providing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine and carbohydrates vs. sugar-free ED containing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine vs. placebo	40 min prior to exercise testing	RPE during 55-minute treadmill run at 65-75% VO2max	↑ Sprint time of 19.8% and 19.0% compared to placebo following ingestion of ED and sugar-free ED, respectively ↓ RPE during exercise for both ED conditions compared to placebo	[185]

↑ = ED/ES significantly greater (p < 0.05) than control; ↓ = ED/ES significantly less (p < 0.05) than control; ↔ = no significant difference between ED/ES and control; 1RM = 1 repetition maximum; BP = Bench press; ED = energy drink; g = gram; HR = heart rate; kg = kilogram; LP = Leg press; mg = milligram; RPE = Rating of perceived exertion; RTF = repetitions to fatigue; y = years; WAnT = Wingate anaerobic cycle test

Table 6. Aerobic Exercise Performance Outcomes in Acute Energy Drink and Energy Shot Studies.

Study	Subjects	Design	ED/ES Condition	Timing	Performance Testing Protocol	Results	Ref #
Geiβ et al. 1994	10 endurance athletes (24.5 ± 3.5 y, 78.8 ± 8.3 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) containing taurine, glucuronolactone and caffeine (U1) vs. ED without taurine or glucuronolactone (U2) vs. placebo (U3)	After 30 min submaximal cycling, 30 minutes prior to a TTE test	TTE on a cycle ergometer at 70% VO2max (following 60 min cycling at ~70% VO2max	↑ TTE in U1 compared to U3 treatment (24.4%) ↑ TTE in U2 compared to U3 treatment (14.9%)	[163]
Alford et al. 2001	14 healthy male (n = 7) and female (n = 7) subjects (~23 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®: 80 mg caffeine, 1000 mg taurine, 600 mg glucuronolactone, 27 g carbohydrates, and 40 mg inositol) vs. placebo	30 min prior to exercise testing	Cycling at 65-75% maximum heart rate until heart rate exceeded 75% max heart rate	↑ Cycle time	[161]
Umaña-Alavarado et al. 2005	11 male runners and triathletes (30.18 ± 11.5 y; 68.3 ± 8.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED providing 32 mg caffeine/100 ml (6 ml∙kg BW^−1 provided) vs. placebo	30 min prior to exercise testing	10-km run TT	↔ TT performance	[206]
Candow et al. 2009	17 physically active males (n = 9) and females (n = 8) (21 ± 4 y, 73.4 ± 3.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) providing 2 mg/kg caffeine vs. drink with ∼147 mg caffeine only vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Running TTE at 80% VO2max	↔ TTE performance ↔ Blood lactate response	[173]
Ivy et al. 2009	12 male (n = 6) and female (n = 6) trained cyclists (27.3 ± 1.7 y, 68.9 ± 3.2 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®: 160 mg caffeine, 2.0 g taurine, 1.2 g glucuronolactone, 54 g carbohydrate, 40 mg niacin, 10 mg pantothenic acid, 10 mg vitamin B6, and 10 μg vitamin B12 vs. placebo	40 min prior to exercise testing	TT to complete a standardized amount of work equal to 1 hr of cycling at 70% Wmax	↑ TT performance (3,690 ± 64 vs. 3,874 ± 93s). ↔ Substrate utilization	[166]
Kazemi et al. 2009	12 female student athletes (22 ± 0.6 y, 56.91 ± 6.79 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	6 mg∙kg BW^−1 of Phantom ED (85 mg of caffeine; 1,000 mg of taurine and 26.8 g of carbohydrates, vs. Dragon ED (50 mg of caffeine, and 28.3 g of carbohydrates) vs. placebo.	40 min prior to exercise testing	TTE on treadmill to determine VO2max	↑ TTE performance (both ED)	[164]
Rahnama et al. 2010	10 male student athletes (22.4 ± 2.1 y, 74.2 ± 8.5 kg)	Randomized, controlled trial with 3 conditions: Red Bull vs. Hype vs Control	ED 1 (Red Bull®) containing 85 mg caffeine, 122.5 kcals, 28.3 g carbs, 1000 mg of taurine, 600 mg glucuronolactone, & B vitamins vs. ED 2 (Hype®) containing 75 mg of caffeine, 99.1 kcals, 24.8 g carbohydrate, 1000 mg Taurine, 600 mg glucuronolactone, & B vitamins vs. placebo	40 min prior to exercise testing	TTE to determine VO2max	↑ VO2max Test (both ED; ED 1 = 52.9 ± 5.3 ml∙kg∙min^−1, ED 2 = 51.9 ± 3.9 ml∙kg∙min^−1, vs. placebo = 46.8 ± 4.1 ml∙kg∙min^−1) ↑ TTE (both ED; ED 1 = 14.6 ± 1.4 min, ED 2 = 14.4 ± 1.1 min, vs. placebo = 13.0 ± 1.0 min)	[165]
Del Coso et al. 2012a	19 semiprofessional soccer players (21 ± 2 y, 67 ± 2 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Sugar-free Red Bull®) providing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Running distance and speed during simulated soccer game	↑ Total distance covered at a speed greater than 13 km∙hr^−1	[135]
Del Coso et al. 2013a	16 elite female rugby players (23 ± 2 y, 66 ± 7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Running speed and sprint velocity during rugby sevens game	↑ Running pace at a speed greater than 13 km∙hr^−1	[137]
Del Coso et al. 2013b	26 elite male rugby players (25 ± 2 y, 93 ± 15 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	(Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Running distance and speed during simulated rugby game	↑ Total distance covered ↑ Total distance covered at a speed greater than 20 km∙hr^−1	[169]
Schubert et al. 2013	6 male runners (22.5 ± 1.8 y; 65.4 ± 10.0 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (Guayakí Yerba Maté Organic Energy Shot™) containing 140 mg caffeine vs. ES (Red Bull Energy Shot™) containing 80 mg caffeine vs. placebo	50 min prior to exercise testing	5-km TT on treadmill	↔ TT performance	[176]
Kammerer et al. 2014	14 male soldiers	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®: 80 mg caffeine and 1000 mg taurine) vs. drink with 80 mg caffeine vs. drink with 80 mg caffeine and 1000 mg taurine vs. drink with 1000 mg taurine vs. placebo	Information unavailable	Incremental treadmill TTE	↔ TTE performance	[145]
Lara et al. 2014	18 female soccer players (21 ± 2 y, 57.8 ± 7.7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Simulated soccer match (2 × 40 min)	↑ Total running distance (6,631 ± 1,618 vs. 7,087 ± 1,501 m) ↑ Running distance covered at >18 km/h (161 ± 99 vs. 216 ± 103 m)	[138]
Nelson et al. 2014	14 recreationally active males and females (25.5 ± 4.1 y, 77.9 ± 18.4 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Monster®: 2 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, 0.65 mg∙kg BW^−1 of carbohydrates, 25 mg∙kg BW^−1 of taurine, 5 mg∙kg BW^−1 of pana-ginseng, 1.5 mg∙kg BW^−1 of Vitamin C, 0.04 mg∙kg BW^−1 of riboflavin, 0.5 mg∙kg BW^−1 of niacin, 0.05 mg∙kg BW^−1 of Vitamin B6 and 0.15 mg∙kg BW^−1 of Vitamin B12 vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Cycling TTE at 100% ventilatory threshold	↔ TTE performance	[174]
Phillips et al. 2014	11 trained male cyclists (33.4 ± 8.9 y; 81 ± 7.6 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED containing 160 mg caffeine, 2 g taurine, 1.2 g glucuronolactone, 56 g carbohydrate, and B vitamins vs. cola matched for caffeine and carbohydrate vs. flavored sparkling water placebo	50 min prior to exercise testing	25-mile simulated road TT	↔ TT performance	[175]
Al-Fares et al. 2015	32 healthy college-aged females (19.9 ± 0.8 y; 51.7 ± 3.7 kg)	Single-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design	4 mL/kg ED (containing 2.0 g taurine, 1.2 g glucuronolactone, 160 mg caffeine, 54 g carbohydrate, 40 mg niacin, 10 mg pantothenic acid, 10 mg vitamin B6, and 10 μg vitamin B12) or PL	45 min prior to exercise testing	Bruce treadmill exercise protocol	↔ TTE performance (PL, 11.7 ± 1.5 min; ED, 11.4 ± 1.6 min).	[171]
Quinlivan et al. 2015	11 trained male cyclists (31.7 ± 5.9 y, 82.3 ± 6.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®: 3 mg/kg caffeine vs. caffeine anhydrous capsule providing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 vs. placebo	90 min prior to exercise testing	TT equivalent to 1 h cycling at 75% peak power output	↑ TT performance compared to placebo (ED = 2.8%; capsule = 3.1%)	[168]
Gallo-Salazar et al. 2015	14 young elite-level tennis players (16.36 ± 1.15 y; 65.2 ± 1.6 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Simulated tennis singles match	↑ Running pace at high intensity (46.7 ± 28.5 vs. 63.3 ± 27.7 m∙hr^−1)	[147]
Del Coso et al. 2016	13 elite male field hockey players (23.2 ± 3.9 y; 76.1 ± 6.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Simulated field hockey match (2 × 25 min)	↑ Distance covered during high intensity running ↔ Total distance covered during the game	[170]
Prins et al. 2016	18 recreational endurance runners (13 men and 5 women) (20.4 ± 3.3 y; 71.3 ± 17.2 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	500 ml of ED (Red Bull®: 2.0 g taurine, 1.2 g glucuronolactone, 160 mg caffeine, 54 g carbohydrates (sucrose and glucose), 40 mg niacin, 10 mg pantothenic acid, 10 mg vitamin B6, and 10 mg vitamin B12) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	5-km TT on a treadmill	↑ TT performance (Red Bull: 1,413.2 ± 169.7 vs. PLA: 1,443.6 ± 179.2 s) ↔ Distance covered at 5-minute splits	[167]
Zileli et al. 2019	18 male amateur soccer players (21.0 ± 1.6 y, 70.6 ± 9.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®: containing 80 mg caffeine, 1 g taurine, 600 mg glucuronolactone, 27 g carbohydrates, and 40 mg inositol) vs. apple juice placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test	↔ Yo-Yo test performance	[159]
Alansare et al. 2021	11 NCAA Division I middle distance runners (20.8 ± 1.5 y; 60.5 ± 10.7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	240 mL ED (8% calamansi juice, 10% glucose, 0.8% taurine, and 0.4% BCAA) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	3-km running TT	↔ TT performance	[172]

↑ = ED/ES significantly greater (p < 0.05) than control; ↓ = ED/ES significantly less (p < 0.05) than control; ↔ = no significant difference between ED/ES and control; ED = energy drink; ES = energy shot; g = gram; kg = kilogram; km = kilometer; km∙hr⁻¹ = kilometer per hour; m∙hr⁻¹ = miles per hour; mg = milligram; y = years; BF% = Body fat percentage; TT = Time trial; TTE = time to exhaustion 

Table 7. Metabolic Effects/Fuel Utilization in Acute Energy Drink and Energy Shot Studies.

Study	Subjects	Design	ED/ES Condition	Timing	Performance Testing Protocol	Results	Ref #
Mendel et al. 2007	10 healthy males (29.8 ± 9.2 y, 83.0 ± 10.3 kg) and females (30.6 ± 7.0 y, 69.0 ± 11.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Celsius^TM: 5 kcals, Vitamin C 60 mg, Riboflavin 1.7 mg, Niacin 20 mg, Vitamin B 2 mg, Vitamin B12, Biotin 300 mcg, Pantothenic Acid 10 mg, Calcium 50 mg, Chromium 50 mcg, Sodium 6 mg, and unspecified amounts [1.8 g total] of caffeine, taurine, guarana extract, green tea extract, glucuronolactone, and ginger extract) vs. Diet Coke®	30 min prior to testing	RMR test	↑ RMR (+13.8% at 1 h post, +14.4% greater at 2 h post, and +8.5% greater at 3 h post-ingestion)	[218]
Rashti et al. 2009	10 physically active women (20.4 ± 0.7 y, 67.0 ± 7.0 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Meltdown RTD®: 230 mg caffeine and undisclosed amounts of botanical compounds; methyl tetradecylthioacetic acid, yerba mate extract, methyl-synephrine, methylphenylethylene, 11-hydroxy yohimbine, yohimbine HCL, alpha-yohimbine, and methyl-hordenine HCL) vs. placebo	Half ED provided at baseline and other half after 30 minutes of testing	RMR test	↑ RMR area under the curve across three hours of testing (+10.8%) ↑ RMR during hours 2 and 3 of testing	[220]
Del Coso et al. 2012b	12 active participants (30 ± 7 y, 69 ± 10 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. same ED without caffeine	60 min prior to testing	RMR test	↔ Resting metabolic rate	[141]
Kinsinger et al. 2016	23 male recreational athletes (21.7 ± 3.3 y; 82.5 ± 15 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (5-Hour Energy®: 18 mg Sodium and 1870 mg of Energy Blend (Taurine, Glucuronic acid (glucuronolactone), Malic Acid, N-Acetyl L-Tyrosine, L-Phenylalanine and Citicoline) 30 mg Niacin (Niacinamide), 40 mg Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine Hydrochloride), 400 mcg Folic Acid and 500 mcg Vitamin B12 [2000% of the DV for vitamins B6 and 8333% of the DV vitamin B12]). vs. placebo	30 min prior to exercise testing	Bruce treadmill protocol	↔ VO2peak ↔ Substrate utilization	[184]
Peveler et al. 2017	15 recreational male (n = 12, 21.8 ± 2.2 y, 84.0 ± 15.4 kg) and female (n = 3, 24 ± 4.4 y, 72.6 ± 6.6 kg) runners	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®: 248.42 mL, 80 mg of caffeine, 1,000 mg of taurine) vs. ED (Monster®: 473.18 mL, 163 mg of caffeine, 1,000 mg of taurine,) vs. ES (5-Hour Energy®: 27.5 mL, 207 mg of caffeine, 479.9 mg of taurine) vs. placebo	60 min prior to exercise testing	15 minutes running at 70% VO2max	↔ Running economy, VO2 measures or heart rate ↓RPE Post ES ingestion compared to ED.	[183]
Harty et al. 2020	16 resistance-trained males (n = 8, 22.4 ± 4.9 y, 78.8 ± 14.0 kg) and females (n = 8, 24.5 ± 4.8 y, 67.5 ± 11.9 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Bang® Keto Coffee: 130 kcal, 300 mg caffeine, and 20 g protein vs. placebo (30 kcal, 11 mg caffeine, 1 g protein)	15 min prior to testing	RMR test	↑ RMR (+0.18 kcal∙min^−1)	[152]
Dalbo et al. 2008	60 healthy males (n = 30, 23.2 ± 4.0 y, 81.7 ± 11.3 kg) and females (n = 30, 23.4 ± 3.1 y, 62.1 ± 9.9 kg)	Randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel groups	ED (Celsius^TM) containing 200 mg caffeine and unspecified amounts of taurine, guarana extract, green tea extract, glucuronolactone, and ginger extract vs. non-caloric, non-caffeinated commercially available diet soda	Consumed assigned drink after baseline measures. Assessments were repeated at 30, 60, 120, and 180 minutes after ingestion	RMR test, RER, glycerol, plasma FFA	↑ RMR at 60, 120, and 180 min after ingestion ↔ RER ↑ FFA and glycerol at 30, 60, 120, and 180 min after ingestion	[178]
Reis et al. 2021	12 males (22 ± 2.6 y, 74.4 ± 5.5 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED providing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine and carbohydrates vs. sugar-free ED providing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine vs. placebo	40 min prior to exercise testing	55-minute treadmill run at 65-75% VO2max	↓ RER during minutes 0-5 and 40-45 of exercise in sugar-free ED condition only	[185]

↑ = ED/ES significantly greater (p < 0.05) than control; ↓ = ED/ES significantly less (p < 0.05) than control; ↔ = no significant difference between ED/ES and control; ED = energy drink; ES = energy shot; FFA = free fatty acids; g = gram; DV = daily value; h = hours; kg = kilogram; mg = milligram; min = minutes; RER = respiratory exchange ratio; RMR = resting metabolic rate; y = years; BMI = Body mass index; RPE = ratings of perceived exertion

Table 8. Cognitive Effects, Reaction Time, and Subjective Effects in Acute Energy Drink and Energy Shot Studies.

Study	Subjects	Design	ED/ES Condition	Timing	Performance Testing Protocol	Results	Ref #
Alford et al. 2001	14 healthy males (n = 7) and females (n = 7) (~23 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) containing 80 mg caffeine, 1 g taurine, 600 mg glucuronolactone, 27 g carbohydrates, and 40 mg inositol vs. placebo.	30 min prior to testing	Choice reaction time testing Subjective measures of alertness	↑ Reaction time performance ↑ Alertness	[161]
Scholey et al. 2004	20 college aged males and females (21.1 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED containing 75 mg caffeine, 37.5 g glucose, and flavoring herbs vs. water plus 75 mg caffeine vs. water plus 37.5 g glucose vs. water with flavoring herbs vs. placebo	30 min prior to testing	Mood assessment Cognitive testing	↑ Secondary memory performance ↑ Speed of attention ↔ Mood ↔ Reaction time performance	[187]
Umaña-Alavarado et al. 2005	11 male runners and triathletes (30.18 ± 11.5 y; 68.3 ± 8.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (6 mL∙kg BW^−1 containing 32 mg caffeine/100 mL) or placebo	30 min prior to testing	RPE during 10-km run	↓ RPE during exercise	[206]
Candow et al. 2009	17 physically active university students (21 ± 4 y, 73.4 ± 3.1 kg)	Double-blind, crossover, repeated-measures study	ED (Red Bull®: 2 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, 25 mg∙kg BW^−1 taurine, 15 mg∙kg BW^−1 glucuronolactone, 0.45 mg∙kg BW^−1 Niacin, 0.15 mg∙kg BW^−1 Pantothenic acid, 0.05 mg∙kg BW^−1 Vitamin B6, 0.04 mg∙kg BW^−1 Riboflavin, 0.025 μg∙kg BW^−1 Vitamin B12) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	RPE during run TTE test at 80% VO2max	↔ RPE	[173]
Hoffman et al. 2009	12 male strength/power athletes (21.1 ± 1.3 y; 88.6 ± 12.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (VPX Redline®; 158 mg of caffeine) vs. placebo	10 min prior to testing	Reaction time testing (Makoto device) Self-reported mood	↑ Successful contacts during reaction time trials ↑ Total percentage of successful contacts during testing. ↑ Feelings of focus and energy	[158]
Howard et al. 2010	80 adult participants (20.1 ± 3.1 y; 74-80 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®; 1.8 mL∙kg BW^−1) vs. ED (Red Bull®; 3.6 mL∙kg BW^−1) vs. ED (Red Bull®; 5.4 mL∙kg BW^−1) vs. placebo vs. no drink	30 min prior to testing	Behavioral control test (cued no-go) Self-reported stimulation, sedation, and fatigue	↑ Reaction time (all ED conditions compared to placebo) ↑ Reaction time (in 1.8 mL∙kg BW^−1 ED condition compared to no drink) ↑ Subjective stimulation post ED consumption (in 1.8 mL∙kg BW^−1and 5.4 mL∙kg BW^−1 ED conditions compared to placebo) ↓ Fatigue change scores (in all ED conditions compared to both the no drink and placebo)	[198]
Duncan et al. 2012	13 resistance-trained males (22.7 ± 6.0 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (179 mg caffeine alongside a matrix of the following ingredients: vitamins B3, B6, B9, and B12; tyrosine; taurine; malic acid; and glucuronolactone in a total volume of 1,024 mg combined) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	RPE during resistance training Readiness to invest mental effort	↓ RPE ↑ Readiness to invest mental effort	[154]
Sünram-Lea et al. 2012	81 firefighter trainees (26 ± 10 y, 80.6 ± 17.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED containing 40 mg caffeine and 50 g carbohydrates vs. ED containing 80 mg caffeine and 10.25 g carbohydrates vs. placebo	75 min prior to testing	Self-reported anxiety and stress	↓ Anxiety (in 40 mg caffeine ED) ↓ Stress (in 40 mg caffeine ED) ↔ Word recall, grammatical reasoning task, information processing, attention, fire-fighting knowledge	[148]
Schubert et al. 2013	6 male runners (22.5 ± 1.8 y; 65.4 ± 10.0 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (Guayakí Yerba Maté Organic Energy Shot™) containing 140 mg caffeine vs. ES (Red Bull Energy Shot™) containing 80 mg caffeine vs. placebo	50 min prior to testing	RPE during 5-km TT on a treadmill	↔ RPE	[176]
Wesnes et al. 2013	94 male and female volunteers (33.1 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES containing 157 mg caffeine, taurine, citicoline, malic acid, and glucuronolactone vs. placebo	Tests conducted hourly for 6 h following ingestion	Measures of attention Memory performance Self-reported mood outcomes	↑ Working memory ↑ Long-term memory ↑ Attentional focus ↑ Vigilance ↑ Alertness	[189]
Goel et al. 2014	15 male volleyball players (21.8 ± 6.9 y, 66 ± 7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) providing 2 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	Auditory reaction time testing	↑ Auditory reaction time performance	[149]
Marczinski et al. 2014	7 male and 7 female participants (20.1 ± 2.8 y, 71.2 ± 13.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (5-Hour Energy®) containing 200 mg caffeine vs. placebo vs. no drink	Tests conducted 30, 90, 150, 210, 270, and 330 min following ingestion	Subjective mood outcomes Behavioral control testing (cued no-go)	↑ Feelings of vigor ↓ Fatigue ↔ Behavioral control performance	[194]
Salinero et al. 2014	90 athletes (23.9 ± 5.7 y, 70.4 ± 11.2 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics: 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	Perceived muscle power, endurance, and RPE during simulated competition	↑ Perceived muscle power during exercise	[204]
Bloomer et al. 2015	20 healthy male (n = 10; 22.7 ± 1.1 y, 82.6 ± 3.8 kg) and female participants (n = 10; 22.1 ± 0.4 y, 82.6 ± 3.8 kg	Randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES containing 200 mg caffeine and a placebo pill vs. placebo shot with 200 mg caffeine pill vs. placebo shot and placebo capsule	Tests conducted 1, 3, and 5 h following ingestion	Cognitive performance testing Subjective measurements of energy and mood	↔ Cognitive performance ↔ Mood	[196]
Mumford et al. 2015	12 male golfers (34.8 ± 13.9 y, 81.2 ± 13.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (containing 155 mg caffeine, vitamin B complex, citric acid, elevATP [VDF FutureCeuticals Inc., Momence, IL] and sucralose) vs. 155 mg caffeine only vs. placebo	Provided at start and after 9^th hole of golf	Perceived energy and fatigue during an 18-hole round of golf	↑ Perceived energy ↓ Fatigue	[205]
Quinlivan et al. 2015	11 trained male cyclists (31.7 ± 5.9 y, 82.3 ± 6.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) containing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine vs. capsule containing 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 anhydrous caffeine vs. placebo	90 min prior to testing	RPE during TT equivalent to 1 h cycling at 75% peak power output	↔ RPE	[168]
Magrini et al. 2016	31 healthy males (n = 23) females (n = 8) (~22 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, parallel design	ED containing 158 mg caffeine and a blend of L-Leucine, B-Phenlyethylamine HCL, L-Valine, L-Isoleucine, N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosine, Yohimbe, Toothed Clubmoss, Yerba Mate Extract, Green Tea Extract, 5-HTP, Vinpocetine vs. placebo	30 min prior to testing	RPE during push up RTF	↔ RPE	[156]
Prins et al. 2016	18 recreational endurance runners (13 M, 5 F; 20.4 ± 3.3 y; 71.3 ± 17.2 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	500 ml of ED (Red Bull®: 2.0 g taurine, 1.2 g glucuronolactone, 160 mg caffeine, 54 g carbohydrates (sucrose and glucose), 40 mg niacin, 10 mg pantothenic acid, 10 mg vitamin B6, and 10 mg vitamin B12) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	RPE during 5-km TT on a treadmill	↔ RPE	[167]
Concerto et al. 2017	14 healthy males and females (31.2 ± 9 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (sugar-free Red Bull®: Aspartame 0.01 mg·kg^−1, Caffeine 2.0 mg·kg^−1, Taurine 25 mg·kg^−1, glucuronolactone 15 mg·kg^−1, niacin 0.45 mg·kg^−1, pantothenic acid 0.15 mg·kg^−1, vitamin B6 0.05 mg·kg^−1, riboflavin 0.04 mg·kg^−1, vitamin B12 0.025 mg·kg^−1) vs. placebo	45 min prior to testing	Reaction time testing	↑ Reaction time performance	[199]
Peveler et al. 2017	15 recreational male (n = 12, 21.8 ± 2.2 y, 84.0 ± 15.4 kg) and female (n = 3, 24 ± 4.4 y, 72.6 ± 6.6 kg) runners	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®: 248.42 mL, 80 mg of caffeine, 1,000 mg of taurine) vs. ED (Monster®: 473.18 mL, 163 mg of caffeine, 1,000 mg of taurine,) vs. ES (5-Hour Energy®: 27.5 mL, 207 mg of caffeine, 479.9 mg of taurine) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	RPE during 15 minutes running at 70% VO2max	↔ RPE	[183]
Wesnes et al. 2017	24 healthy male and female volunteers (22.1 ± 5.3 y, 64.2 ± 12.6 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (B-vitamins Vitamin B6 – 40 mg, Niacin (Vitamin B3) – 30 mg, Vitamin B12 – 500 μg, Folic acid (Vitamin B9) 400 μg, Energy blend [1870 mg total: Taurine, Glucuronolactone (glucuronic acid), Malic acid, N-acetyl-L-tyrosine, L-phenylalanine, Caffeine 157 mg, Citicoline) vs. placebo	Tests conducted 30, 60, and 90 min following ingestion.	Cognitive function tests Self-reported mood and alertness	↑ Working memory ↑ Episodic memory ↑ Attention ↑ Reaction time	[190]
Chtorou et al. 2019	19 male physical education students (21.2 ± 1.2 y; 76.6 ± 12.6 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Red Bull®) containing 160 mg caffeine, 2.0 g taurine, 1.2 g glucuronolactone, 54 g carbohydrate, 40 mg niacin, 10 mg pantothenic acid, 10 mg vitamin B6, and 10 μg vitamin B12) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	Visual reaction time testing Subjective mood outcomes	↑ Reaction time performance ↓ Measures of confusion ↓ Measures of fatigue ↓ Measures of anger ↓ Measures of anxiety ↑ Measures of vigor ↓ RPE during testing	[146]
Thomas et al. 2019	9 elite League of Legends esports players (21 ± 2 y, 25.6 ± 3.4 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (AI Reload®: 12 g Glycerin, 150 μg Vitamin B12, 70 mg Magnesium, 40 mg Sodium, and 1005 mg Proprietary Blend [L-Carnitine, 150 mg Caffeine, L-theanine, Phosphatidylserine, Choline [from alpha-GPC], Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (reduced form NADH)] vs. placebo	30 min prior to testing	Measures of attention Reaction time testing Working memory tests	↔ Attention ↔ Reaction time ↑ Working memory	[188]
Garcia-Alvarez et al. 2020	223 healthy male and female volunteers (18-70 y)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (5 Hour Energy®: Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine hydrochloride) 40 mg, Folic acid 400 μg, Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) 500 μg, Sodium 18 mg, Energy blend [2009 mg Total of: Taurine, choline, glucuronic acid (as or from glucuronolactone), N-acetyl l-tyrosine, l-phenylalanine, and malic acid, Caffeine 6 mg, other ingredients: Purified water, natural and artificial flavors, sucralose, Decaf: containing no caffeine) vs. placebo	Tests conducted 0.5, 2.5, and 5 h following ingestion.	Reaction time and accuracy tests Distraction avoidance test Measures of mood	↔ Reaction time performance ↔ Distraction avoidance ↔ Mood	[197]
Reis et al. 2021	12 males (22 ± 2.6 y, 74.4 ± 5.5 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (123 kcals, 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, 30 g of carbohydrates, 24 mg of sodium, 1,000 mg of taurine) vs. sugar-free ED (12 kcals, 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, 0 g of carbohydrates, 24 mg of sodium, 1,000 mg of taurine) vs. placebo	40 min prior to testing	RPE during 55-minute treadmill run at 65-75% VO2max	↓ RPE	[185]

↑ = ED/ES significantly greater (p < 0.05) than control; ↓ = ED/ES significantly less (p < 0.05) than control; ↔ = no significant difference between ED/ES and control; ED = energy drink; ES = energy shot; g = gram; h = hours; kg = kilogram; km = kilometer; mg = milligram; min = minutes; RPE = rating of perceived exertion; RTF = repetitions to fatigue; TT = time trial; TTE = time to exhaustion; y = years; μg = microgram

Table 9. Sport-Specific Performance Outcomes in Acute Energy Drink and Energy Shot Studies.

Study	Subjects	Design	ED/ES Condition	Timing	Performance Testing Protocol	Results	Ref #
Del Coso et al. 2013b	26 elite male rugby players (25 ± 2 y, 93 ± 15 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics at 1 and 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	Body impacts during simulated rugby game	↑ Body impacts	[169]
Peltier et al. 2013	8 trained male tennis players (26.0 ± 5.7 y; 82 ± 11 kg	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (caffeine; 140 mgL^−1) vs. placebo	Consumed before, during, and after tennis matches	Two 3-match round robin tennis tournaments	↑ Tennis stroke frequency	[209]
Del Coso et al. 2014	15 male volleyball players (21.8 ± 6.9 y, 66 ± 7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics at 1 and 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	Ball spike test Agility T-test Simulated volleyball match	↑ Ball spike velocity (75 ± 10 vs. 73 ± 9 km/h) ↓ T-test time (10.8 ± 0.7 vs. 10.3 ± 0.4 s) ↑ Frequency of successful volleyball actions (34.3 ± 16.5 vs. 24.6 ± 14.3%)	[136]
Monaghan et al. 2014	10 active-duty police officers	Randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (5-Hour Energy Extra®) vs. placebo	30 min prior to testing	Handgun shooting stability test	↓ Handgun stability	[210]
Mumford et al. 2015	12 male golfers (34.8 ± 13.9 y, 81.2 ± 13.1 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ES (containing 155 mg caffeine, vitamin B complex, citric acid, elevATP [VDF FutureCeuticals Inc., Momence, IL] and sucralose) vs. 155 mg caffeine only vs. placebo	Provided at start and after 9^th hole of golf	18-hole round of golf	↑ Total score (76.9 ± 8.1 vs. 79.4 ± 9.1) ↑ Drive distance (239.9 ± 33.8 vs. 233.2 ± 32.4 m) ↑ Greens in regulation (8.6 ± 3.3 vs 6.9 ± 4.6)	[205]
Perez-Lopez et al. 2015	13 elite female volleyball players (25.2 ± 4.8 y, 64.4 ± 7.6 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics at 1 and 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	Standing ball spike test Jumping spike test Agility T-test Simulated volleyball match	↑ Standing ball spike velocity (19.7 ± 1.9 vs. 19.2 ± 2.1 m/s) ↑ Jumping spike velocity (18.8 ± 2.2 vs. 17.9 ± 2.2 m/s) ↓ T-test time (10.9 ± 0.3 vs. 11.1 ± 0.5 s) ↑ Frequency of successful volleyball actions (34 ± 9 vs 14 ± 9%)	[140]
Clarke et al. 2016	12 male badminton players (28 ± 9 y, 78 ± 9 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	Drink providing 4 mg/kg caffeine vs. drink providing 4 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine and 6.4% carbohydrates vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	Badminton serve accuracy test	↑ Short serve accuracy ↑ Long serve accuracy	[201]
Portillo et al. 2017	16 elite female rugby sevens players (23 ± 2 y, 66 ± 7 kg)	Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study	ED (Fure®, ProEnergetics at 1 and 3 mg∙kg BW^−1 caffeine, taurine 2000 mg, sodium bicarbonate 500 mg, L-carnitine 200 mg, and maltodextrin 705 mg) vs. placebo	60 min prior to testing	Body impacts during three rugby sevens matches	↑ Body impacts	[208]

↑ = ED/ES significantly greater (p < 0.05) than control; ↓ = ED/ES significantly less (p < 0.05) than control; ↔ = no significant difference between ED/ES and control; ED = energy drink; ES = energy shot; g = gram; kg = kilogram; km = kilometer; mg = milligram; min = minutes; y = years

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