How Gender Affects Negative and Positive Campaigning

Figures & data

Table 1. Means (Standard Deviations in Parentheses) for Positive and Negative Campaigning Broken Down by Gender.

		Min – Max	Women		Men		Sign. Gender Difference
Positive Campaigning		1–5	3.75	(0.58)	3.53	(0.65)	***
	Issues specific to your campaign		4.38	(0.76)	4.15	(0.82)	***
	Your personal characteristics and circumstances		3.67	(1.01)	3.42	(1.07)	**
	Particular items on the party platform		3.99	(0.86)	3.64	(0.97)	***
	Your party’s record during the term		2.97	(1.13)	2.91	(1.18)
Negative Campaigning		1–5	1.87	(0.67)	2.27	(0.84)	***
	Issues specific to the personal campaign of other candidates		1.59	(0.76)	2.09	(1.08)	***
	Personal characteristics and circumstances of other candidates		1.19	(0.51)	1.48	(0.81)	***
	Particular items on the platform of other parties		2.38	(1.04)	2.83	(1.17)	***
	Other parties’ records during the term		2.34	(1.16)	2.69	(1.19)	***
Difference Between Positive and Negative Campaigning		−1.5–4	1.88	(0.81)	1.26	(0.94)	***

Source: CCS 2019 Finland; ***p ≤ 0.001; **p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05.

Figure 1. Predicted Means (With 95% Confidence Intervals) for Negative and Positive Campaigning Among Women and Men.

Table 2. OLS Regression Analyses for Positive and Negative Campaigning.

	Positive Campaigning				Negative Campaigning
	B			St. Err.	B		St. Err.
Woman	0.21	***	(.05)		−0.34	***	(0.06)
Age	0.00		(.00)		−0.00		(0.00)
University	−0.00		(.05)		−0.24	***	(0.06)
Urban living	−0.02		(.02)		0.01		(0.03)
Sociable	0.10	***	(.03)		−0.02		(0.03)
Critical	−0.02		(.03)		0.15	***	(0.03)
Incumbent	−0.15		(.12)		0.17		(0.16)
Likelihood of winning	0.13	***	(.03)		0.06		(0.04)
Size campaign team	−0.00		(.00)		0.00		(0.00)
Governmental party	−0.12	*	(.05)		−0.31	***	(0.06)
Constant	2.89	***	(0.17)		2.02	***	(0.22)
R-Squared	0.11				0.15
N	695				698

Source: CCS 2019 Finland; ***p ≤ 0.001; **p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05.

Table 3. OLS Regression Analyses for Difference Between Positive and Negative Campaigning.

	Difference Positive and Negative Campaigning
	B		St. Err.
Woman	0.52	***	(0.07)
Age	0.00		(0.00)
University	0.19	**	(0.07)
Urban living	−0.03		(0.03)
Sociable	0.12	**	(0.04)
Critical	−0.16	***	(0.04)
Incumbent	−0.30		(0.16)
Likelihood of winning	0.10	*	(0.04)
Size campaign team	−0.00		(0.00)
Governmental party	0.12		(0.07)
Level of positive and negative campaigning	−0.17	***	(0.03)
Constant	1.74	***	(0.30)
Pseudo R Squared	0.24
N	689

Source: CCS 2019 Finland; ***p ≤ 0.001; **p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05.

Figure 2. Predicted Means (With 95% Confidence Intervals) for the Difference Between Positive and Negative Campaigning.

Table A1. Means/Proportions (Standard Deviations in Parentheses) for Independent Variables Broken Down by Gender.

	Range	Women		Men		Sign. Gender Difference
Age	18–85	45.11	(12.90)	47.92	(13.52)	**
University	0/1	48.09%		38.12%		*
Urban living	1–4	2.45	(1.15)	2.53	(1.13)
Sociable	1–5	4.24	(0.97)	3.96	(1.03)	***
Critical	1–5	2.07	(0.92)	2.26	(0.99)	*
Incumbent	0/1	5.79%		2.87%
Likelihood of winning	1–5	2.14	(0.98)	2.12	(0.98)
Size campaign team	0–201	13.73	(21.33)	9.39	(23.37)	*
Govern	0–10	4.47	(2.59)	4.99	(2.73)	*

Source: CCS 2019 Finland; ***p ≤ 0.001; **p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05.

Table A2. Ordered Logit Regression Analyses for Positive and Negative Campaigning.

	Positive Campaigning			Negative Campaigning
	Coeff.		St. Err.	Coeff.		St. Err.
Woman	0.61	***	(0.15)	−0.83	***	(0.15)
Age	0.01		(0.01)	−0.00		(0.01)
University	−0.06		(0.15)	−0.53	**	(0.15)
Urban living	−0.04		(0.06)	0.01		(0.07)
Sociable	0.28	***	(0.08)	−0.07		(0.08)
Critical	−0.05		(0.08)	0.38	***	(0.08)
Incumbent	−0.57		(0.37)	0.33		(0.33)
Likelihood of winning	0.37	***	(0.09)	0.16		(0.09)
Size campaign team	0.00		(0.00)	0.00		(0.00)
Governmental party	−0.36	*	(0.15)	−0.76	***	(0.17)
Cut 1	−3.70			−1.98
[…]
Cut 14	6.67			6.18
Pseudo R-Squared	0.02			0.03
N	695			698

Source: CCS 2019 Finland; ***p ≤ 0.001; **p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05.

Table A3. OLS Regression Analysis with Interaction Between Gender and Incumbency for Positive Campaigning.

	Positive Campaigning
	B		St. Err.
Woman	0.23	***	(0.05)
Age	0.00		(0.00)
University	−0.00		(0.05)
Urban living	−0.02		(0.02)
Sociable	0.09	***	(0.03)
Critical	−0.02		(0.03)
Incumbent	0.15		(0.16)
Likelihood of winning	0.13	***	(0.03)
Size campaign team	−0.00		(0.00)
Governmental party	−0.12	*	(0.05)
Woman * Incumbent	−0.48	*	(0.20)
Constant	2.89	***	(0.17)
R-Squared	0.12
N	695

Source: CCS 2019 Finland; ***p ≤ 0.001; **p ≤ 0.01; *p ≤ 0.05.