Characteristics and circumstances of volatile solvent misuse-related death in Australia, 2000–2021

Figures & data

Table 1. Demographic characteristics and circumstances of death in 164 cases of volatile solvent misuse-related fatalities in Australia, 2000–2021.

	Number (%)
Sex
Male	131 (79.9)
Female	33 (20.1)
Age ranges
15–19 years	46 (28.0)
20–29 years	62 (37.8)
30–39 years	42 (25.6)
≥40 years	14 (8.5)
Employment status
Unemployed	102 (62.2)
Employed	36 (22.0)
Student	20 (12.2)
Retired/pensioner	6 (3.7)
Married/de facto relationship	15 (9.1)
Enrolled in drug treatment program	<5
Documented history of:
Substance use problems	99 (60.4)
Injection drug use	21 (12.8)
Mental health problems	45 (27.4)
Affective disorders	37 (22.6)
Psychotic illness	9 (5.5)
Previous medical intervention for volatile substance misuse-related incident	11 (6.7)
Circumstance of death
Unintentional toxicity	100 (61.0)
Unintentional asphyxia	33 (20.1)
Intentional self-harm (all cases)	20 (12.2)
Drug toxicity	7 (4.3)
Physical means	13 (7.9)
Traumatic accident	11 (6.7)
Location of fatal incident
Private enclosed setting (e.g., private home, private hotel room)	126 (76.8)
Public location (e.g., park, car on street)	38 (23.2)
Social setting of use
Only person using solvents	129 (78.7)
Using solvents with others	35 (21.3)
Sexual enhancement	6 (3.7)
Medical intervention (e.g., ambulance)	27 (16.5)

Table 2. Types of volatile solvents involved among 164 cases of volatile solvent misuse-related fatalities in Australia, 2000–2021.

	Number (%)
Gas fuels (e.g., disposable cigarette lighter cannisters, gas bottles)	58 (35.4)
Liquid fuels (gasoline)	32 (19.5)
Adhesives and paints (e.g., glue, spray paints, paint thinners)	32 (19.5)
Aerosol propellants (e.g., air fresheners, deodorant spray, hair spray)	21 (12.8)
Volatile anaesthetics (nitrous oxide, isoflurane)	21 (12.8)
Nitrites (alkyl nitrite, amyl nitrite)	0 (0.0)

Table 3. Toxicology of volatile solvent misuse-related fatalities in Australia, 2000–2021.

	Number (%)
Volatile solvents (n = 108)^#
Butane	42 (38.9)
Toluene	32 (29.6)
Propane	27 (25.0)
Isobutane	20 (18.5)
Gasoline	16 (14.8)
Xylenes	10 (9.3)
Benzene	6 (5.6)
Nitrous oxide	5 (4.6)
Trichloroethylene	1 (0.9)
1,1 − difluoroethane	1 (0.9)
Drugs other than volatile solvents (n = 134)
Any drugs detected	81 (60.4)
Cannabis	37 (27.6)
Alcohol	33 (24.6)
Opioids (any)	21 (15.7)
Methadone	10 (7.5)
Morphine	8 (6.0)
Codeine	4 (3.0)
Fentanyl	0 (0.0)
Other opioids (dextromethorphan, pethidine,  pholcodine, propoxyphene, tramadol)	4 (3.0)
Hypnosedatives	19 (14.2)
Benzodiazepine	18 (13.4)
Barbiturates	1 (0.7)
Antidepressants	17 (12.7)
Psychostimulants (any)	13 (9.7)
Metamfetamine	9 (6.7)
3,4-Methylenedioxymetamfetamine (MDMA)	4 (3.0)
Antipsychotics	88 (6.0)
Hallucinogens (psilocin*)	1 (0.7)

^#Major ingredients detected by type of volatile solvent used at the fatal incident: Gas fuels (butane, benzene, isobutane, propane, toluene, xylene), Liquid fuels (benzene, isobutane, gasoline, toluene, xylene), Adhesives and paints (benzene, butane, toluene, trichloroethylene, xylene), Aerosol propellants (butane. 1,1 − difluoroethane, propane, toluene), Volatile anaesthetics (nitrous oxide). Ingredients may be present in cases across more than one volatile solvent.

*Metabolite of psilocybine.