Beyond Active/Passive: Using the Interpersonal Circumplex to Re-Conceptualize Victim Behavior During Violent Crime

Figures & data

Figure 1. The interpersonal circumplex.

Table 1. Sample characteristics.

	Domestic violence	Sexual assault	Physical assault	Total
Victim gender
Female	24 (73%)	14 (70%)	37 (38%)	75 (50%)
Male	9 (27%)	6 (30%)	60 (62%)	75 (50%)
Victim age
16–19	3 (9%)	4 (20%)	7 (7%)	14 (9%)
20–29	8 (24%)	2 (10%)	16 (16%)	26 (17%)
30–39	14 (42%)	6 (30%)	22 (23%)	42 (28%)
40–49	0 (0%)	2 (10%)	15 (15%)	17 (11%)
50–59	4 (12%)	1 (10%)	17 (17%)	22 (15%)
60 years or older	1 (3%)	1 (10%)	4 (4%)	6 (6%)
Not stated	3 (9%)	4 (20%)	16 (16%)	23 (15%)
Total	33	20	97	150

Percentage totals may not add to 100 due to rounding.

Figure 2. Case selection and exclusion criteria.

Table 2. Victim behavior during physically assaultive crimes.

Hypothesized IPC style	Behavior	Frequency (% cases)	Description	Example behaviors
Dominance	Leave	49 (35)	Victim removed themselves from the situation	Walk away; run away; leave
	Defend	41 (27)	Victim defended themselves or other	Protect self or other; resist offender; direct other to protect themselves
	Evade	31 (21)	Victim avoids the offender	Retreat; hide; evasive action; lock the door; move away from offender (but not leave scene)
	Hard no	20 (13)	Victim said no with some force	Command offender; tell offender to go away; protest
	Help	16 (11)	Victim called for help	Call for help
Submission	Do nothing	24 (16)	Victim did not physically respond to offender	Not resist; not stop offender
	Sex	21 (14)	Victim experienced a sexual act involving the offender	Sexual intercourse; oral sex; watch offender masturbate; sex with offender not specified.
	Soft no	8 (5)	Victim said no, less forcefully	Ask offender to stop; said no
	Uncontrollable response	8 (5)	Victim expressed an uncontrollable response	“Freak out” [sic]; freeze; immobilized; “space out” [sic]
	Cower	8 (5)	Victim cowered from offender	Cry; curl into fetal position; not look at offender; pretend to sleep
Hostility	Fight	34 (23)	Victim physically fought with offender	Struggle; wrestle; tackle offender; fight; kick; attack with weapon; restrain offender/other; punch; bit offender
	Argue	22 (15)	Victim verbally argued with offender or bystander	Argue; swear; yell at offender; scream at offender
	Uncooperative	22 (15)	Victim refused to comply with offender	Not co-operate with offender; refuse to do as told; escape
	Confront	14 (9)	Victim confronts or threatens offender	Confront the offender; told offender off; threaten offender with weapon; break down a door
	Scream	11 (7)	Victim screamed	Scream or shout (not at offender)
Co-operation	Co-operate	27 (18)	Victim cooperates with or acquiesces to offender	Give help to offender or others; remove clothes; open door
	Talk	26 (17)	Victim engaged in conversation with or questioned offender	Talk to offender; question offender
	Negotiate	11 (7)	Victim attempted to find a way to compromise with offender	Negotiate with offender; offer offender money; calm offender; beg

Table 3. Correlations.

	Leave	Defend	Evade	Hardno	Help	Donot	Sex	Softno	Uncont	Cower	Fight	Argue	Uncoop	Cnfrnt	Scream	Coop	Talk	Negoff
Negoff	0.022	0	−0.017	−0.035	−0.097	−0.053	−0.02	−0.067	−0.067	−0.067	−0.03	−0.117	−0.117	0.086	0.019	0.134	0.074	1
Talk	0.094	−0.004	0.158	0.079	0.013	0.184*	0.059	0.048	−0.109	−0.03	−0.038	−0.09	0.208*	0.035	−0.061	0.198*	1	.
Coop	0.081	−0.171*	−0.068	−0.031	−0.106	0.032	0.161*	0.043	0.043	−0.034	−0.088	−0.096	0.002	−0.031	0.001	1	.	.
Scream	0.077	−0.173*	−0.08	−0.11	0.234**	−0.053	−0.101	0.047	−0.067	0.047	0.031	0.028	0.028	0.086	1	.	.	.
Cnfrnt	−0.028	0.009	0.063	0.076	−0.037	0.048	−0.115	−0.076	0.026	−0.076	0.045	−0.068	0.061	1	.	.	.	.
Uncoop	0.113	0.084	0.207*	0.059	−0.021	0.076	0.09	0.153	−0.015	0.069	0.091	−0.012	1	.	.	.	.	.
Argue	0.073	−0.043	0.068	0.115	0.04	−0.181*	−0.148	0.069	−0.015	−0.015	0.271**	1	.	.	.	.	.	.
Fight	−0.105	0.061	0.117	0.116	0.019	−0.193*	−0.143	0.084	0.155	0.013	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Cower	0.024	−0.079	0.172*	0.081	0.014	0.058	0.383**	0.472**	0.076	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Uncont	0.151	−0.012	−0.048	0.081	0.014	0.139	0.102	0.208*	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Softno	0.024	−0.012	0.099	0.169*	0.014	−0.023	0.290**	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Sex	0.02	−0.078	0.077	0.107	−0.124	0.131	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Donot	−0.071	−0.104	−0.043	−0.011	−0.033	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Help	0.128	−0.067	0.037	−0.008	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Hardno	0.103	−0.021	0.139	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Evade	0.066	0.093	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Defend	0.019	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.
Leave	1	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.	.

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Variable key: Leave = Victim removed themselves from the situation; Defend = Victim defended themselves or other; Evade = Victim avoids the offender; Hardno = Victim said no with some force; Help = Victim called for help; Donot (do nothing) = Victim did not physically respond to offender; Sex = Victim experienced a sexual act involving the offender; Softno = Victim said no, less forcefully; Uncont (uncontrollable response) = Victim expressed an uncontrollable response; Cower = Victim cowered from offender; Fight = Victim physically fought with offender; Argue = Victim verbally argued with offender or bystander; Uncoop (uncooperative) = Victim refused to comply with offender; Cnfrnt (confront) = Victim confronts or threatens offender; Scream = Victim screamed; Coop (Cooperate) = Victim cooperates with or acquiesces to offender; Talk = Victim engaged in conversation with or questioned offender; Negoff (negotiate) = Victim attempted to find a way to compromise with offender.

Table 4. Summary of the four- component model of victim behavior.

	Component 1: Submission	Component 2: Dominance	Component 3: Hostility	Component 4: Cooperation
Soft no	.771
Cower	.746
Sex	.625		−.399
Uncontrollable response	.466
Uncooperative		.657	*
Talk		.652		.309*
Evade		.574
Leave		.392
Fight			.703
Argue			.628
Scream			.447
Help		*	.308
Cooperate				.727
Negotiate				.700
Cronbach’s α	0.531	0.415	0.300	0.102
Eigenvalue	1.974	1.627	1.386	1.111
% total variance	14.098	11.623	9.900	7.936

Loadings with values less than 0.3 were suppressed for ease of interpretation. Bold denotes variables that did not appear in the hypothesized component. * denotes the variable’s hypothesized component placing.

Figure 3. Dimension 1 × 3 of the 3D SSA plot of victim behaviour during physically assaultive crime.

Table 5. Victim behavior and the corresponding IPC behavioral styles.

IPC behavioral style (n)	Dominance (169)	Submission (89)	Cooperation (38)	Hostility (82)
Behaviors (n)	Defend (41) Evade (31) Leave (49) Talk (26) Uncooperative (22)	Cower (8) Do nothing (24) Hard no (20) Sex (21) Soft no (8) Uncontrollable response (8)	Cooperate (11) Negotiate (27)	Argue (22) Confront (14) Fight (34) Help (11) Scream (11)