A systematic review of the empirical research on selected aspects of homeschooling as a school choice

Figures & data

Table 1. Academic achievement of homeschool and institutional school students compared.

Study (Author/Year)	Design	Subjects’ Grade Levels or Ages	Background Variables Controlled?	Findings
Aram et al., 2016	Cross-sectional, explanatory	K	Yes	Literacy skills equal or lower for HS
Ray, 2015	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Grades 4–8	Yes	Reading, language, & math scores higher for HS by effect sizes 1.13, 0.65, & 0.60
Martin-Chang et al., 2011	Cross-sectional, explanatory; matched-pair	Ages 5–10	Yes	Letter-word, comprehension, word attack, science, humanities, & calculation scores higher than Public for structured HS (by 0.06 to 0.15 effect sizes) and lower for unstructured HS
Ray, 2010	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Grades K-12	No	Reading, language, math, social studies, & science scores higher for HS by effect sizes 0.79, 0.85, 0.85, 0.81, & 0.77
Barwegen, Falciani, Putnam, Reamer, & Stair, 2004	Cross-sectional, descriptive	High school	Yes, one	No difference in ACT (college admissions test) scores
Duvall, Delquadri, & Ward, 2004	Continuous baseline probe design	Grades 5–6	Yes	Reading & math scores higher for HS
Medlin & Blackmer, 2000	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Grades 4–8	Yes	Reading, math, social studies, & science scores higher for HS
Ray, 2000	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Grades K-12	No	Reading, language, math, social studies, & science scores higher for HS by effect sizes 0.84, 0.90, 0.87, 0.82, & 0.82
Rudner, 1999	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Grades K-12	No	Reading, language, math, social studies, & science scores higher for HS by effect size 0.67
Duvall, Ward, Delquadri, & Greenwood, 1997	Cross-sectional, explanatory, matched-pair	Grades 3–8	Yes	Language & math scores higher for HS
Russell, 1994	Cross-sectional, explanatory; path analysis	Grades K-12	Yes	Reading, language, math, & listening scores higher for HS
Wartes, 1990	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Grades K-12	No	Reading, language, math, & listening scores higher for HS by effect size 0.41
Frost & Morris, 1988	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Grades 3–6	Yes	Vocabulary, reading, language skills, work study skills, & mathematics scores higher for HS by effect sizes 0.05 to 0.64
Wartes (1988)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Grades K-12	No	Reading, language, math, social studies, & science scores higher for HS, effect size 0.41

The research designs terms are largely from Johnson (2001), types of research obtained by crossing research objective and time dimension.

HS = homeschool.

Public = public school.

Private = private school.

Mixed = some findings more positive for homeschool and some more positive for conventional school.

n.r. = not reported or not readily usable/applicable for this type of summary table.

Table 2. Social development of homeschool and institutional school students compared.

Study (Author/Year)	Design	Subjects’ grade levels or ages	Background variables controlled?	Findings
Guterman and Neuman (2017)	Cross-sectional, explanatory; matched subjects	Ages 6–12	Yes	Lower depression for HS (0.08 effect), less externalizing problems for HS (0.15 effect); no difference in internalizing problems & attachment security
Thomson and Jang (2016)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Ages 13–17	Yes	Less underage alcohol drinking by HS
Montes (2015)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Ages 6–17	Yes	No difference in problem behaviors & social competencies; HS argue less than Conventional; mixed differences on participation in activities
Vaughn et al. (2015)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Ages 12–17	Yes	Less use/abuse of tobacco, alcohol, & illicit drugs by HS
Green-Hennessey (2014)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Ages 12–17	Yes	Stronger religious affiliation HS less substance abuse and delinquency than Conventional; weaker religious HS no differences
Drenovsky and Cohen (2012)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	College	No	Self-esteem no difference; lower depression for HS; higher GPA & college experience for HS
McKinley, Asaro, Bergin, D’Auria, and Gagnon (2007)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Ages 8–12	No	Several variables (e.g., cooperation, assertion, self-control, conflict with others); some positive and some negative HS compared to Private; some positive for HS and some neutral HS compared to Public
Medlin (2006)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Grades 3–6	No	Cooperation, assertiveness, empathy, & self-control higher for HS vs. Public, effect sizes 0.13 to 1.55
McEntire (2005)		Grades 7–12		Several life challenges variables (e.g., tension, sense of upbeatness, drug use; lying, alcohol use), some more positive for HS and some more positive for Conventional
Francis and Keith (2004)	Cross-sectional, explanatory; matched-pair	Ages 5–18		Social skills higher for HS than Conventional, effect size 0.12; no difference for problem behaviors
Sutton and Galloway (2000)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	College	Yes	More positions of leadership for HS
Tillman (1995)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Ages 11–14	No	Family acceptance, academic competence, peer, & personal security higher for HS, effect size 0.61
Shyers (1992)	Cross-sectional, explanatory; matched-pair	Ages 8–10	Yes	Fewer problem behaviors (e.g., aggressive/passive) for HS; no difference self-concept
Smedley (1992)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Grades K-12	No	Social maturity (communication, daily living skills, and the socialization domains) higher for HS, effect size .99
Kelley (1991)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Grades 2–10	No	Self-concept higher for HS

The research designs terms are largely from Johnson (2001), types of research obtained by crossing research objective and time dimension.

HS = homeschool.

Conventional = public or private school.

Public = public school.

Private = private school.

Mixed = some findings more positive for homeschool and some more positive for conventional school.

n.r. = not reported or not readily usable/applicable for this type of summary table.

Table 3. Relative success in adulthood of homeschool and institutional school students.

Study (Author/Year)	Design	Subjects’ grade levels or ages	Background variables controlled?	Findings
Almasoud and Fowler (2016)	Cross-sectional, explanatory; matched sample	College, ages 17–28	Yes	College final GPA higher for HS, effect size 0.62
Yu et al. (2016)	Cross-sectional, explanatory, matched sample	College	Yes	No difference first-year GPA & retention
Wilkens, Wade, Sonnert, and Sadler (2015)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	College	Yes	Calculus course grade higher for HS
Cheng (2014)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	College	Yes	HS more politically tolerant than Public; HS no different from Private
Snyder (2013)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	College	No	SAT & ACT scores & GPA higher for HS compared to Public & Catholic school
Drenovsky and Cohen (2012)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	College	No	Less depression, more positive college experience, & higher GPA for HS; no difference in self-esteem
Cogan (2010)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	College	Yes	Higher first- and fourth-year GPAs for HS; no difference in fall-to-fall retention & four-year graduation rates
Jones (2010)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	College	No	No differences in college entrance exam scores, GPA, & activities involvement
White, Moore, and Squires (2009)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	College	No	HS more agreeable, conscientious & open than Conventional; no difference in extraversion & neuroticism
Uecker (2008)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	Ages 13–17	Yes	Involvement in religious community & Private religiosity higher for HS
Qaqish (2007)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	College-bound	Yes	ACT math scores higher for Conventional
White et al. (2007)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	College	Yes	In college adjustment measures, HS less anxious than Conventional; no differences other 8 measures
Jones and Gloeckner (2004)	Cross-sectional, explanatory, match-sample	College	Yes	No differences in ACT scores, first-year GPA, retention, & first-year credit earned
Ray (2004)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	Ages 16–69	No	Various variables (e.g., civic involvement, life satisfaction) more positive for HS
Sutton and Galloway (2000)	Cross-sectional, explanatory	College	Yes	More positions of leadership for HS; no difference in GPA
Oliveira, Watson, and Sutton (1994)	Cross-sectional, descriptive	College	No	No differences in critical thinking skills

The research designs terms are largely from Johnson (2001), types of research obtained by crossing research objective and time dimension.

HS = homeschool.

Public = public school.

Private = private school.

Mixed = some findings more positive for homeschool and some more positive for conventional school.

n.r. = not reported or not readily usable/applicable for this type of summary table.

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