Education Freedom and Student Achievement: Is More School Choice Associated with Higher State-Level Performance on the NAEP?

Figures & data

Table 1. Summary statistics for the variables used in the analysis.

Variable	Observations	Mean	Std. Dev.	Minimum	Maximum
Combined NAEP 2019 (Std.)	51	−0.00	1.01	−2.35	2.32
EFI (Std.)	51	−0.00	1.01	−1.79	2.76
Student/Teach Ratio	51	15.46	2.83	10.80	23.29
Per-Pupil Spending (Logged)	51	9.53	0.28	9.06	10.31
Household Income (Logged)	51	10.99	0.17	10.68	11.32
% White Students	51	57.83	19.46	11.68	90.47
Combined NAEP 2003 (Std.)	51	0.00	1.01	−3.80	1.38
Teacher Quality (Std.)	51	0.00	1.01	−2.02	1.92
Charter & Private Reg. (Std.)	47	−0.00	1.01	−1.68	2.41

(Std.) means the variable was standardized. (Logged) means the variable was transformed by taking its Natural Log.

Table 2. Combined education freedom index rankings, 2019.

State	EFI Ranking	State (Alphabetical)	EFI Ranking
Arizona	1	Alabama	34
Indiana	2	Alaska	49
Minnesota	3	Arizona	1
Wisconsin	4	Arkansas	26
Iowa	5	California	12
Louisiana	6	Colorado	19
Florida	7	Connecticut	17
Ohio	8	Delaware	14
Idaho	9	District of Columbia	32
Michigan	10	Florida	7
Missouri	11	Georgia	18
California	12	Hawaii	51
Illinois	13	Idaho	9
Delaware	14	Illinois	13
New Mexico	15	Indiana	2
Pennsylvania	16	Iowa	5
Connecticut	17	Kansas	43
Georgia	18	Kentucky	25
Colorado	19	Louisiana	6
New Jersey	20	Maine	30
Mississippi	21	Maryland	46
Oklahoma	22	Massachusetts	41
Utah	23	Michigan	10
Montana	24	Minnesota	3
Kentucky	25	Mississippi	21
Arkansas	26	Missouri	11
South Dakota	27	Montana	24
Nebraska	28	Nebraska	28
Texas	29	Nevada	47
Maine	30	New Hampshire	37
North Carolina	31	New Jersey	20
District of Columbia	32	New Mexico	15
Tennessee	33	New York	35
Alabama	34	North Carolina	31
New York	35	North Dakota	45
South Carolina	36	Ohio	8
New Hampshire	37	Oklahoma	22
Washington	38	Oregon	44
Vermont	39	Pennsylvania	16
Wyoming	40	Rhode Island	42
Massachusetts	41	South Carolina	36
Rhode Island	42	South Dakota	27
Kansas	43	Tennessee	33
Oregon	44	Texas	29
North Dakota	45	Utah	23
Maryland	46	Vermont	39
Nevada	47	Virginia	48
Virginia	48	Washington	38
Alaska	49	West Virginia	50
West Virginia	50	Wisconsin	4
Hawaii	51	Wyoming	40

Table 3. The relationship between the EFI and state combined 2019 NAEP score.

Variable	(1) Correlation	(2) Simple Model	(3) Simple & 03 NAEP	(4) (3) & Teacher Quality (TQ)	(5) (3) & Regulation	(6) (3) & TQ & Regulation
EFI	0.15 (0.13)	0.29*** (.09)	0.21*** (0.08)	0.17** (0.08)	0.19** (0.08)	0.15* (0.08)
Per-Pupil Spending		−1.74*** (.062)	−0.87** (0.42)	−0.83* (0.41)	−0.85* (0.42)	−0.86** (0.42)
Student/Teach Ratio		−0.11** (0.04)	−0.05 (0.03)	−0.03) (0.03)	−0.05 (0.03)	−0.02 (0.03)
Household Income		5.37*** (0.76)	2.99*** (0.56)	3.17*** (0.59)	3.02*** (0.56)	3.22*** (0.59)
% White Students		0.03*** (0.00)	0.01* (0.00)	0.01** (0.00)	0.01* (0.01)	0.01* (0.01)
Combined NAEP 2003			0.61*** (0.08)	0.61*** (0.09)	0.61*** (0.10)	0.59*** (0.10)
Teacher Quality				0.16** (0.07)		0.18** (0.07)
Charter & Private Reg.					0.07 (0.07)	0.04 (0.06)
Constant	−.00 (.14)	−42.77*** (6.18)	−24.37*** (4.30)	−27.14*** (4.37)	−25.05*** (4.17)	−27.68*** (4.30)
Observations	51	51	51	51	47	47
R-Squared	0.02	0.71	0.82	0.84	0.82	0.85

Robust standard errors in parentheses.

Statistically significant at *** p<.01, ** p<.05, *p<.1 based on a two-tailed test.

Table A1. Private school choice ranking.

State (Rank Order)	Private Choice Ranking	State (Alphabetical)	Private Choice Ranking
Iowa	1	Alabama	15
Minnesota	2	Alaska	Tied for Last
Arizona	3	Arizona	3
Indiana	4	Arkansas	Tied for Last
Florida	5	California	Tied for Last
Wisconsin	6	Colorado	27
Louisiana	7	Connecticut	Tied for Last
Vermont	8	Delaware	Tied for Last
Illinois	9	District of Columbia	13
Maine	10	Florida	5
Pennsylvania	11	Georgia	14
Ohio	12	Hawaii	Tied for Last
District of Columbia	13	Idaho	Tied for Last
Georgia	14	Illinois	9
Alabama	15	Indiana	4
North Carolina	16	Iowa	1
Rhode Island	17	Kansas	28
South Carolina	18	Kentucky	Tied for Last
Maryland	19	Louisiana	7
South Dakota	20	Maine	10
Oklahoma	21	Maryland	19
Virginia	22	Massachusetts	Tied for Last
Utah	23	Michigan	Tied for Last
Nevada	24	Minnesota	2
New Hampshire	25	Mississippi	26
Mississippi	26	Missouri	Tied for Last
Colorado	27	Montana	29
Kansas	28	Nebraska	Tied for Last
Montana	29	Nevada	24
Arkansas	Tied for Last	New Hampshire	25
Alaska	Tied for Last	New Jersey	Tied for Last
California	Tied for Last	New Mexico	Tied for Last
Connecticut	Tied for Last	New York	Tied for Last
Delaware	Tied for Last	North Carolina	16
Hawaii	Tied for Last	North Dakota	Tied for Last
Idaho	Tied for Last	Ohio	12
Kentucky	Tied for Last	Oklahoma	21
Massachusetts	Tied for Last	Oregon	Tied for Last
Michigan	Tied for Last	Pennsylvania	11
Missouri	Tied for Last	Rhode Island	17
Nebraska	Tied for Last	South Carolina	18
New Jersey	Tied for Last	South Dakota	20
New Mexico	Tied for Last	Tennessee	Tied for Last
New York	Tied for Last	Texas	Tied for Last
North Dakota	Tied for Last	Utah	23
Oregon	Tied for Last	Vermont	8
Tennessee	Tied for Last	Virginia	22
Texas	Tied for Last	Washington	Tied for Last
Washington	Tied for Last	West Virginia	Tied for Last
West Virginia	Tied for Last	Wisconsin	6
Wyoming	Tied for Last	Wyoming	Tied for Last

Table A2. Charter school choice ranking.

State	CER/Market Share Ranking	State (Alphabetical)	CER/Market Share Ranking
District of Columbia	1	Alabama	39
Arizona	2	Alaska	41
Florida	3	Arizona	2
Colorado	4	Arkansas	31
California	5	California	5
Indiana	6	Colorado	4
Michigan	7	Connecticut	33
Minnesota	8	Delaware	23
South Carolina	9	District of Columbia	1
New York	10	Florida	3
Utah	11	Georgia	25
New Mexico	12	Hawaii	24
Massachusetts	13	Idaho	18
Louisiana	14	Illinois	34
Wisconsin	15	Indiana	6
Ohio	16	Iowa	45
Texas	17	Kansas	43
Idaho	18	Kentucky	40
Nevada	19	Louisiana	14
North Carolina	20	Maine	35
Pennsylvania	21	Maryland	42
Tennessee	22	Massachusetts	13
Delaware	23	Michigan	7
Hawaii	24	Minnesota	8
Georgia	25	Mississippi	38
New Jersey	26	Missouri	28
Oregon	27	Montana	31
Missouri	28	Nebraska	Tied for last – no charters
Oklahoma	29	Nevada	19
Rhode Island	30	New Hampshire	32
Arkansas	31	New Jersey	26
New Hampshire	32	New Mexico	12
Connecticut	33	New York	10
Illinois	34	North Carolina	20
Maine	35	North Dakota	Tied for last – no charters
Wyoming	36	Ohio	16
Washington	37	Oklahoma	29
Mississippi	38	Oregon	27
Alabama	39	Pennsylvania	21
Kentucky	40	Rhode Island	30
Alaska	41	South Carolina	9
Maryland	42	South Dakota	Tied for last – no charters
Kansas	43	Tennessee	22
Virginia	44	Texas	17
Iowa	45	Utah	11
Montana	Tied for last	Vermont	Tied for last – no charters
Nebraska	Tied for last	Virginia	44
North Dakota	Tied for last	Washington	37
South Dakota	Tied for last	West Virginia	Tied for last – no charters
Vermont	Tied for last	Wisconsin	15
West Virginia	Tied for last	Wyoming	36

Table A3. Homeschooling ranking.

State	Homeschool Ranking	State (Alphabetical)	Homeschool Ranking
Missouri	1	Alabama	14
Indiana	2	Alaska	20
Hawaii	3	Arizona	22
Idaho	4	Arkansas	32
Montana	5	California	28
Illinois	6	Colorado	47
Connecticut	7	Connecticut	7
Michigan	8	Delaware	11
Wisconsin	9	District of Columbia	51
Mississippi	10	Florida	38
Delaware	11	Georgia	27
New Jersey	12	Hawaii	3
Iowa	13	Idaho	4
Alabama	14	Illinois	6
New Mexico	15	Indiana	2
Kentucky	16	Iowa	13
Louisiana	17	Kansas	26
Ohio	18	Kentucky	16
Wyoming	19	Louisiana	17
Alaska	20	Maine	43
Nebraska	21	Maryland	24
Arizona	22	Massachusetts	49
South Dakota	23	Michigan	8
Maryland	24	Minnesota	39
North Dakota	25	Mississippi	10
Kansas	26	Missouri	1
Georgia	27	Montana	5
California	28	Nebraska	21
Oklahoma	29	Nevada	34
Tennessee	30	New Hampshire	35
North Carolina	31	New Jersey	12
Arkansas	32	New Mexico	15
Texas	33	New York	41
Nevada	34	North Carolina	31
New Hampshire	35	North Dakota	25
Pennsylvania	36	Ohio	18
Washington	37	Oklahoma	29
Florida	38	Oregon	45
Minnesota	39	Pennsylvania	36
Utah	40	Rhode Island	46
New York	41	South Carolina	44
Virginia	42	South Dakota	23
Maine	43	Tennessee	30
South Carolina	44	Texas	33
Oregon	45	Utah	40
Rhode Island	46	Vermont	50
Colorado	47	Virginia	42
West Virginia	48	Washington	37
Massachusetts	49	West Virginia	48
Vermont	50	Wisconsin	9
District of Columbia	51	Wyoming	19

Table A4. Public school choice ranking.

State	Ranking	State (Alphabetical)	Ranking
Vermont	1	Alabama	40
Ohio	2	Alaska	50
Indiana	3	Arizona	8
Nebraska	4	Arkansas	19
California	5	California	5
South Dakota	6	Colorado	10
Delaware	7	Connecticut	14
Arizona	8	Delaware	7
Idaho	9	District of Columbia	48
Colorado	10	Florida	27
Louisiana	11	Georgia	26
New Mexico	12	Hawaii	51
Oklahoma	13	Idaho	9
Connecticut	14	Illinois	32
Missouri	15	Indiana	3
Wisconsin	16	Iowa	17
Iowa	17	Kansas	36
Michigan	18	Kentucky	23
Arkansas	19	Louisiana	11
Montana	20	Maine	29
Minnesota	21	Maryland	47
Washington	22	Massachusetts	31
Kentucky	23	Michigan	18
Mississippi	24	Minnesota	21
Utah	25	Mississippi	24
Georgia	26	Missouri	15
Florida	27	Montana	20
New Hampshire	28	Nebraska	4
Maine	29	Nevada	49
New Jersey	30	New Hampshire	28
Massachusetts	31	New Jersey	30
Illinois	32	New Mexico	12
Pennsylvania	33	New York	35
Rhode Island	34	North Carolina	45
New York	35	North Dakota	37
Kansas	36	Ohio	2
North Dakota	37	Oklahoma	13
Texas	38	Oregon	41
Tennessee	39	Pennsylvania	33
Alabama	40	Rhode Island	34
Oregon	41	South Carolina	44
West Virginia	42	South Dakota	6
Virginia	43	Tennessee	39
South Carolina	44	Texas	38
North Carolina	45	Utah	25
Wyoming	46	Vermont	1
Maryland	47	Virginia	43
District of Columbia	48	Washington	22
Nevada	49	West Virginia	42
Alaska	50	Wisconsin	16
Hawaii	51	Wyoming	46