A Review on Applicability, Limitations, and Improvements of Polymeric Materials in High-Pressure Hydrogen Gas Atmospheres

Figures & data

Figure 1. Graphical illustration of a hydrogen gas energy system; main stages and typical applications of polymeric components.^{[20,33,36,41–43,48]}

Table 1. Polymeric materials used in high-pressure hydrogen applications.^[9,36,49]

Component	Description	Exemplary material grades
Compressed hydrogen pressure vessels	Type IV	Polymer liner: High-density polyethylene (HDPE), Polyamide (PA); composite vessel: glass or carbon fiber, epoxy resin
Pipelines	High-pressure distribution (>10 MPa)	Polymer liner: HDPE, PA
Piping, tubing	Low-pressure distribution (<10 MPa)	HDPE, Polypropylene (PP), Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), Chlorinated poly(vinyl chloride) (CPVC)
Mechanical compressors	Seals and coatings	Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Dispensing hoses		Nitrile rubber, Fluoroelastomer (FKM), Polycarbonate (PC)
Flange connectors (low-pressure <10 MPa)	O-rings, gaskets	Nitrile rubber, FKM, PTFE
Threaded connectors (high-pressure >10 MPa)	O-rings	Nitrile rubber, FKM
Valves	Pistons	PEEK
	O-rings, fittings, etc.	Nitrile rubber, FKM, PTFE
	Seals and gaskets	PTFE, FKM, nitrile rubber, PEEK, PA, Ethylene propylene copolymer (EPM), fluorosilicone, silicone, Neoprene (CR)
	Valve seats	PA, PTFE, Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), Polyimide (PI)

Figure 2. Schematic representation of an O-ring; (a) installation of an O-ring in a high-pressure hydrogen pressure vessel and exposure to high-pressure hydrogen gas, (b), (c) and (d) possible types of gas leakage through a sealing component, through gaps, by permeation, and by mechanical damage, respectively.^[38,54]

Figure 3. Overview of general phenomenology during the decompression phase.^[66,70]

Figure 4. Illustration of cracks generated after decompression; (a) inner cracks in unconstrained conditions, (b) inner cracks in constraint conditions, (c) crack propagation even up to the surface.^[38]

Figure 5. Model of blister initiation; (a) right after decompression, (b) bubble formation by clustering supersaturated hydrogen molecules, and (c) blister initiation due to stress concentration caused by bubbles.^[77]

Figure 6. Model of blister initiation after decompression.^[38]

Figure 7. Schematic representation of the evolution of the amount of gas inside the liner/composite assembly; (a) during the exposure to saturation pressure, (b) during the depressurization phase, (c) at the end of the depressurization phase, and (d) after complete gas desorption.^[19,68]

Figure 8. Influence of O-ring filling ratios on possible fracture behavior of rubber O-ring; (a) extrusion-fracture at high filling ratio, (b) buckling-fracture at low filling ratio.^[84]

Figure 9. The schematic of the seal-wedge combined sealing ring used in a high-pressure hydrogen vessel (O-ring, X-ring, and D-ring can be replaced by each other).^[107]

Figure 10. Increased tortuous path length, generated by orthogonally arranged two-dimensional obstacles.^[134]

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