Is increased energy utilization linked to greater cultural complexity? Energy utilization by Australian Aboriginals and traditional swidden agriculturalists

Figures & data

Table I. Estimates of yearly per capita energy utilization in western industrialized countries (excluding inputs of human energy and burning of harvest residues in the field).

Country	Estimated yearly per capita energy utilization in 1997 (×10^5 MJ)
Austria	1.4
Belgium	2.2
Canada	3.3
Finland	2.5
France	1.8
Germany	1.8
Italy	1.2
Portugal	0.8
Spain	1.1
UK	1.7
USA	3.4
Sources: Sheffield (1998); EEA (2000).

Table II. Estimate of yearly per capita energy utilization linked to purposeful burning of vegetation by Australian Aboriginals.

Parameter: abbreviation	Parameter	Low estimate	High estimate	Source
F	Frequency of burning (year^−1)	0.2	0.5	Yibarbuk et al. (2001); Ward et al. (2001); Bowman et al. (2004); Vigilante et al. (2004)
f	Fuel load (kg km^−2)	4×10^5	5×10^5	Yibarbuk et al. (2001); Saarnak (2001)
e	Energy content of fuel: grass, twigs, leaves (MJ kg^−1)	15	20	Smil (1991); Woodard and Pine (1993); Srivastava (1995); Neitzke (2002)
p ^−1	Inverse of population density (km^2/person)	1.3	8	Lourandos (1980); Russel-Smith et al. (1997)
E	Energy utilization (MJ person^−1 year^−1)	1.6×10^6	4×10^7

Table III. Estimates of yearly per capita energy utilization linked to burning biomass (vegetation, fuel wood) for specified groups of swidden agriculturalists.

Group	Estimated energy utilization (MJ person^−1 year^−1)	Source	Assumptions
Swidden agriculturalists in tropical rainforest of Venezuela	3.9×10^5	Uhl (1987); Uhl et al. (1988)	Per capita area 0.25 ha, burnt biomass 260 tons ha^−1 of 20×10^3 MJ ton^−1 with 90% efficiency; years under cultivation: 3
Swidden agriculturalists in dry forest of Northern Brazil	1.0 – 3.3×10^5	Kauffman et al. (1993)	Per capita area 0.5 ha, burnt biomass; 74 tons ha^−1 of 20×10^3 MJ ton^−1 with 90% efficiency; years under cultivation: 2 – 7
Kantu' swidden agriculturalists in the tropical rainforest of South Kalimantan	3.1 – 6.3×10^5	Dove (1983); Sulistyawati et al. (2005)	Per capita area: 0.44 ha; burnt biomass 80 tons ha^−1 of 20×10^3 MJ ton^−1 with 90% efficiency; years under cultivation: 1 – 2
Khasi swidden agriculturalists in north-eastern Indian montane forests	1.8×10^4	Mishra and Ramakrishnan (1982)
Chitemene agriculturalists in miombo woodland Zambia	2.1×10^5	Chidumayo (1987)	Per capita area: 1.1 ha, burned biomass 21.14 tons ha^−1 of 20×10^3 MJ ton^−1 with 90% efficiency; years under cultivation: 2

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