Urban water security: water supply and demand management strategies in the face of climate change

Figures & data

Figure 1. The location of regional cities (Cairns/Townsville/Mackay) in the study area.

Figure 2. Overall research methodology.

Figure 3. Research studies analysed as part of the literature review.

Table 1. Climate change adaptation elements.

Adaptation segments	Element	References
Climate change parameters – impact assessment	Sea level rise	Reager et al., 2016; Vu et al., 2018
	Rainfall variation	Haque et al., 2016; Tariku and Gan (2018); Engle (2012)
	Extreme climatic events	Haque, Rahman, and Samali (2016); Bates, Kundzewicz, and Wu (2008).
	Increase in dryness and evaporation	Helfer, Lemckert, and Zhang (2012); Tanzeeba and Gan (2012)
	Temperature variation	Helfer, Lemckert, and Zhang (2012); Tariku and Gan (2018); Bates, Kundzewicz, and Wu (2008)
Climate change risk perception and adaptation priorities for water authorities	The balance between water supply and demand	Benson and Lorenzoni (2017); Horne (2018)
	Uncertainty in the development and planning of water infrastructures	Azhoni, Jude, and Holman (2018); Brown et al. (2020); Young and Essex (2020)
	Economic resiliency	Biesbroek et al. (2013); Engle (2012); Maaike et al. (2020); Madsen et al. (2018).
	Legal liability and policy implementation	Azhoni, Jude, and Holman (2018); Baker et al. (2012)
	Stakeholder response and well being	Esteve, Varela-Ortega, and Downing (2018); Young and Essex (2020)
	Emergency risk (water crisis/scarcity) perceptions and priorities	Engle (2012); Horne (2018)
Available resource	Appropriate resource (funding and technical)	Simonet and Leseur (2019); Young and Essex (2020),
	External support (technical/economic support from external organisations)	Mcclure and Baker (2018); Measham et al. (2011)
	Stakeholder support	Baggett, Jeffrey, and Jefferson (2006); Esteve, Varela-Ortega, and Downing (2018); Young and Essex (2020)
	Policy tools and legislation	Azhoni, Jude, and Holman (2018); Biesbroek et al. (2013)
Urban water authorities – actions adapting to climate change	Assessment of the climate change impacts on water	Engle (2012); Biesbroek et al. (2013)
	Financial assessment including cost-benefit assessment for water augmentation and demand management	Maaike et al. (2020); Miller and Belton (2014); Eisenack et al. (2014)
	Stakeholder response and engagement for acceptable water supply security	Baggett, Jeffrey, and Jefferson (2006); Esteve, Varela-Ortega, and Downing (2018).
	Emergency action plan and implementation during water scarcity	Engle (2012); Horne (2018)
	Policy development and implementation	Haasnoot et al. (2013); Maaike et al. (2020); Simonet and Leseur (2019); Young and Essex (2020)
	Define, measure and track climate change adaptation actions (water augmentation/water demand parameters)	Haasnoot et al. (2013); Young and Essex (2020)

Figure 4. Interrelationships among climate change adaptation elements in urban water sector.

Table 2. Water demand management strategies to achieve long-term UWS.

Water demand management - key elements	Description	Impact on water consumption
Pricing-based WDM	Water demand management – pricing strategies: - Changes in water pricing - Changes in water billing structure and frequency	Low-moderate impact (Lu, Deller, and Hviid 2019; Tortajada et al. 2019; Inman and Jeffrey (2006); Stavenhagen, Buurman, and Tortajada (2018)High impact (Mansur and Olmstead 2012; March and Saurí 2010)
Non-pricing WDM	Smart technologies, water leakage management, policy development etc. Raising public awareness and education campaign	Low - moderate impact (Inman and Jeffrey 2006) High impact (Rajala and Katko 2004; Stavenhagen, Buurman, and Tortajada 2018) Low-moderate impact (Stavenhagen, Buurman, and Tortajada 2018) High impact (Tortajada et al. (2019)
Emergency WDM	Emergency WDM plan includes water restriction and emergency contingency planning. Emergency contingency plan may include any possible combinations of pricing and non-pricing WDM policies.	High impact during emergency/drought (Drysdale and Hendricks 2018; Engle 2012; Horne 2018); Voluntary water restriction not very effective (Horne 2018; Kenney et al. 2008)

Table 3. Water resource options to be explored to achieve long-term UWS.

Water supply options	Water resource infrastructure elements	Limitations and challenges
Freshwater resource	Surface water	Highly sensitive to the impacts of climate change and climatic variations. (Ahamad et al. 2013; Wang et al. 2014; Zucchinelli et al. 2021) Climate induced changes in aquifer levels and saltwater intrusion into groundwater are identified as critical challenges for groundwater resources. (Vu, Yamada, and Ishidaira 2018) Success of stormwater harvesting is highly dependent on the rainfall amount, rainfall pattern and spatial distribution of rainfall (Aliabadi, Gholamrezai, and Ataei 2020)
	Groundwater
	Stormwater harvesting
Alternative water resource	Seawater (desalination plant)	Alternative water resources are comparatively more costly then using traditional freshwater resources. (Lefebvre 2018; Moshtagh and Mohsenpour 2019; Smith et al. 2018) Climate change and climatic variations will have comparatively less impacts on the alternative water resource options identified. (Lefebvre 2018; Moshtagh and Mohsenpour 2019) Significant cost is involved to develop and operate desalination plants. (Baggett, Jeffrey, and Jefferson 2006; Hanak and Lund 2012; Sowers, Vengosh, and Weinthal 2011)
	Recycled water and other water reuse scheme

Figure 5. Adaptations to climate change to achieve long-term UWS.

Figure 6. The importance of pricing vs non-pricing WDM policies to achieve long-term water supply security in the face of climate change by the interviewees.

Figure 7. The importance of different water supply source options for long-term urban water supply security that adapts to the impacts of climate change in the Queensland tropics as indicated by the interviewees.

Table

Interviewee Code	Position and employment department
PE1	Planning engineer (Infrastructure asset management & planning)
PE2	Planning engineer (Infrastructure asset management & planning)
PE3	Planning engineer (Planning services)
PE4	Planning engineer (Planning services)
PE5	Planning engineer (Development planning, policy, and approval)
PE6	Planning engineer (Development planning, policy, and approval)
WE1	Water expert (Infrastructure asset management & planning)
WE2	Water expert (Infrastructure asset management & planning)
WE3	Water expert (Policy development and implementation)
WE4	Water expert (Policy development and implementation)
WE5	Water expert (Policy development and implementation)
SE1	Sustainability expert (Policy development and implementation)
SE2	Sustainability expert (Policy development and implementation)
SE3	Sustainability expert ((Infrastructure asset management & planning))
SE4	Sustainability expert (Policy development and implementation)
PO1	Planning officer (Policy development and implementation)
PO2	Planning officer (Planning services)
PO3	Planning officer (Planning services)
PO4	Planning officer (Development planning, policy, and approval)
PO5	Planning officer (Development planning, policy, and approval)

Table

No.	Description
1	Tell us about the current implementation of climate change adaptation practice in urban water sector?
2	Among the water supply-side and demand-side measures what options the local urban water authorities should explore more and implement to achieve long-term urban water supply security in the face of climate change and climatic variations? How, why or why not?
3	Among the water resource options, what options the water authorities should explore more and implement to achieve water supply security in the face of climate change? Why or why not?
4	Further ‘How’ or ‘Why’ type questions to get better understandings on the perception of the regional urban water professionals.

Reager, J., A. Gardner, J. Famiglietti, D. Wiese, A. Eicker, and M. Lo. 2016. “A Decade of Sea Level Rise Slowed by Climate-Driven Hydrology.” Science (New York, NY) 351 (6274): 699–703. doi:10.1126/science.aad8386.

 Google Scholar

Vu, D., T. Yamada, and H. Ishidaira. 2018. “Assessing the Impact of Sea Level Rise Due to Climate Change on Seawater Intrusion in Mekong Delta, Vietnam.” Water Science and Technology: A Journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research 77 (6): 1632–1639. doi:10.2166/wst.2018.038.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Haque, M., A. Rahman, and B. Samali. 2016. “Evaluation of Climate Change Impacts on Rainwater Harvesting.” Journal of Cleaner Production 137: 60–69. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.038.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tariku, T., and B. Gan. 2018. “Regional Climate Change Impact on Extreme Precipitation and Temperature of the Nile River Basin.” Climate Dynamics 51 (9–10): 3487–3506. doi:10.1007/s00382-018-4092-8.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Engle, N. 2012. “Adaptation Bridges and Barriers in Water Planning and Management: Insight from Recent Extreme Droughts in Arizona and Georgia 1.” JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association 48 (6): 1139–1150. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2012.00676.x.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bates, B.C., Z.W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu, and J.P. Palutikof, Eds. 2008. Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 210.

 Google Scholar

Helfer, Fernanda, Charles Lemckert, and Hong. Zhang. 2012. “Impacts of Climate Change on Temperature and Evaporation from a Large Reservoir in Australia.” Journal of Hydrology 475: 365. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.10.008.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tanzeeba, S., and T. Gan. 2012. “Potential Impact of Climate Change on the Water Availability of South Saskatchewan River Basin.” Climatic Change 112 (2): 355–386. doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0221-7.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Benson, D., and I. Lorenzoni. 2017. “Climate Change Adaptation, Flood Risks and Policy Coherence in Integrated Water Resources Management in England.” Regional Environmental Change 17 (7): 1921–1932. doi:10.1007/s10113-016-0959-6.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Horne, J. 2018. “Resilience in Major Australian Cities: Assessing Capacity and Preparedness to Respond to Extreme Weather Events.” International Journal of Water Resources Development: Urban Resilience to Droughts and Floods: Policies and Governance 34 (4): 632–651. doi:10.1080/07900627.2016.1244049.

 Google Scholar

Azhoni, A., S. Jude, and I. Holman. 2018. “Adapting to Climate Change by Water Management Organisations: Enablers and Barriers.” Journal of Hydrology 559 (C): 736–748. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.02.047.

 Google Scholar

Brown, Casey, Frederick Boltz, Sarah Freeman, Jacqueline Tront, and Diego. Rodriguez. 2020. “Resilience by Design: A Deep Uncertainty Approach for Water Systems in a Changing World.” Water Security 9: 100051. doi:10.1016/j.wasec.2019.100051.

 Google Scholar

Young, D., and S. Essex. 2020. “Climate Change Adaptation in the Planning of England’s Coastal Urban Areas: Priorities, Barriers and Future Prospects.” Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 63 (5): 912–934. doi:10.1080/09640568.2019.1617680.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Biesbroek, G., R. Klostermann, J. Termeer, and E. Kabat. 2013. “On the Nature of Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation.” Regional Environmental Change 13 (5): 1119–1129. doi:10.1007/s10113-013-0421-y.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Maaike, V., J. Dominique, K. Rozenberg, J. Bouwer, L. Matthews, P. LeRoy, J. Kind, and N L. Poff. 2020. “Investments Under Non-Stationarity: Economic Evaluation of Adaptation Pathways.” Climatic Change 161 (3): 451–463. doi:10.1007/s10584-019-02409-6.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Madsen, H., M. Andersen, M. Rygaard, and P. Mikkelsen. 2018. “Definitions of Event Magnitudes, Spatial Scales, and Goals for Climate Change Adaptation and Their Importance for Innovation and Implementation.” Water Research (Oxford) 144: 192–203. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2018.07.026.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Baker, I., A. Peterson, G. Brown, and C. Mcalpine. 2012. “Local Government Response to the Impacts of Climate Change: An Evaluation of Local Climate Adaptation Plans.” Landscape and Urban Planning 107 (2): 127–136. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.05.009.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Esteve, P., C. Varela-Ortega, and T. Downing. 2018. “A Stakeholder-Based Assessment of Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation in a Water-Scarce Basin in Spain.” Regional Environmental Change 18 (8): 2505–2517. doi:10.1007/s10113-018-1366-y.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Simonet, G., and A. Leseur. 2019. “Barriers and Drivers to Adaptation to Climate Change—A Field Study of ten French Local Authorities.” Climatic Change 155 (4): 621–637. doi:10.1007/s10584-019-02484-9.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mcclure, L., and D. Baker. 2018. “How Do Planners Deal with Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation? A Case Study in Queensland, Australia.” Landscape and Urban Planning 173: 81–88. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.01.012.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Measham, T.G., B.L. Preston, T.F. Smith, C. Brooke, R. Gorddard, G. Withycombe, and C. Morrison. 2011. “Adapting to Climate Change Through Local Municipal Planning: Barriers and Challenges.(report).” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 16 (8): 889–909. doi:10.1007/s11027-011-9301-2.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Baggett, S., P. Jeffrey, and B. Jefferson. 2006. “Risk Perception in Participatory Planning for Water Reuse.” Desalination 187 (1): 149–158. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2005.04.075.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Miller, K., and A. Belton. 2014. “Water Resource Management and Climate Change Adaptation: A Holistic and Multiple Criteria Perspective.” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 19 (3): 289–308. doi:10.1007/s11027-013-9537-0.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Eisenack, K., S.C. Moser, E. Hoffmann, R.J.T. Klein, C. Oberlack, A. Pechan, M. Rotter, and C.J. Termeer. 2014. “Explaining and Overcoming Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation.” Nat Clim Change 4 (10): 867–872. doi:10.1038/nclimate2350.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Haasnoot, M., J. Kwakkel, W. Walker, and J. Ter Maat. 2013. “Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways: A Method for Crafting Robust Decisions for a Deeply Uncertain World.” Global Environmental Change 23 (2): 485–498. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.12.006.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lu, L., D. Deller, and M. Hviid. 2019. “Price and Behavioural Signals to Encourage Household Water Conservation: Implications for the UK.” Water Resources Management 33 (2): 475–491. doi:10.1007/s11269-018-2133-z.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Tortajada, C., F. González-Gómez, A. Biswas, and J. Buurman. 2019. “Water Demand Management Strategies for Water-Scarce Cities: The Case of Spain.” Sustainable Cities and Society 45: 649–656. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2018.11.044.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Inman, D., and P. Jeffrey. 2006. “A Review of Residential Water Conservation Tool Performance and Influences on Implementation Effectiveness.” Urban Water Journal 3 (3): 127–143. doi:10.1080/15730620600961288.

 Google Scholar

Stavenhagen, M., J. Buurman, and C. Tortajada. 2018. “Saving Water in Cities: Assessing Policies for Residential Water Demand Management in Four Cities in Europe.” Cities 79: 187–195. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2018.03.008.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mansur, E., and S. Olmstead. 2012. “The Value of Scarce Water: Measuring the Inefficiency of Municipal Regulations.” Journal of Urban Economics 71 (3): 332–346. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2011.11.003.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

March, H., and D. Saurí. 2010. “The Suburbanization of Water Scarcity in the Barcelona Metropolitan Region: Sociodemographic and Urban Changes Influencing Domestic Water Consumption.” The Professional Geographer 62 (1): 32–45. doi:10.1080/00330120903375860.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rajala, R., and T.S. Katko. 2004. “Household Water Consumption and Demand Management in Finland.” Urban Water Journal 1 (1): 17–26. doi:10.1080/15730620410001732080.

 Google Scholar

Drysdale, K., and N. Hendricks. 2018. “Adaptation to an Irrigation Water Restriction Imposed Through Local Governance.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 91: 150–165. doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2018.08.002.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Kenney, D., C. Goemans, R. Klein, J. Lowrey, and K. Reidy. 2008. “Residential Water Demand Management: Lessons from Aurora, Colorado 1.” JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association 44 (1): 192–207. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00147.x.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ahamad, M.G., R.K. Khondker, Z.U. Ahmed, and F. Tanin. 2013. “Seasonal Food Insecurity in Bangladesh: Evidences from Northern Areas.” Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 18 (7): 1077–1088. doi:10.1007/s11027-012-9408-0.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Wang, X-J., J-Y. Zhang, J-H. Wang, S. Shahid, A. ElMahdi, L. Jin-Hua, W. Xin-Gong, D. King, and S. Shahid. 2014. “Climate Change and Water Resources Management in Tuwei River Basin of Northwest China.” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 19 (1): 107–120. doi:10.1007/s11027-012-9430-2.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Zucchinelli, Spinelli, R. Corrado, L. Lamastra, and L. Lamastra. 2021. “Evaluation of the Influence on Water Consumption and Water Scarcity of Different Healthy Diet Scenarios.” Journal of Environmental Management 291: 112687. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112687.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Aliabadi, V., S. Gholamrezai, and P. Ataei. 2020. “Rural People’s Intention to Adopt sustainable Water Management by Rainwater Harvesting Practices: Application of TPB.” Water Supply 20 (5): 1847–1861. doi:10.2166/ws.2020.094.

 Google Scholar

Lefebvre, O. 2018. “Beyond NEWater: An Insight into Singapore’s Water Reuse Prospects.” Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 2: 26–31. doi:10.1016/j.coesh.2017.12.001.

 Google Scholar

Moshtagh, M., and M. Mohsenpour. 2019. “Community Viewpoints About Water Crisis, conservation and Recycling: A Case Study in Tehran.” Environment, Development and Sustainability 21 (6): 2721–2731. doi:10.1007/s10668-018-0158-3.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Smith, H., S. Brouwer, P. Jeffrey, and J. Frijns. 2018. “Public Responses to Water Reuse – Understanding the Evidence.” Journal of Environmental Management 207: 43–50. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.11.021.

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hanak, E., and J. Lund. 2012. “Adapting California’s Water Management to Climate Change.” Climatic Change 111 (1): 17–44. doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0241-3.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Sowers, J., A. Vengosh, and E. Weinthal. 2011. “Climate Change, Water Resources, and the Politics of Adaptation in the Middle East and North Africa.” Climatic Change 104 (3): 599–627. doi:10.1007/s10584-010-9835-4.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar