Bridges in a changing climate: a study of the potential impacts of climate change on bridges and their possible adaptations

Figures & data

Figure 1. Climate change risks on bridges, examples.

Figure 2. Different ways for managing climate change risks.

Table 1. Potential climate change risks and their possible adaptations.

Potential impact	Adaptation
Accelerated degradation of material	Cathodic protection (Stewart et al., 2012; Vicroads, 2015); Increase in concrete cover thickness, improve quality of concrete (strength grade), protective surface coatings and barriers, use of stainless steel, galvanized reinforcement, corrosion inhibitors, electrochemical chloride extraction (Stewart et al., 2012); Protection by design, preservative treatment and the use of modified wood for timber bridges (Mahnert & Hundhausen, 2017); More frequent inspection and maintenance
Heat-induced damage to pavements and rails	Use of polymer modified binders (Vicroads, 2015); Development of new heat resistant paving materials (FHWA, 2009; NRC, 2008); More frequent maintenance(ATSE, 2008; FHWA, 2009; FHWA, 2013; Lindgren et al., 2009); Use of concrete railroad ties instead of wood ties (Delgado & Aktas, 2016); More expansion joints in pavements and rails (Meyer & Weigel, 2011); Introducing speed restrictions (Mehrotra et al., 2011).
Increased long-term deformations	Improved monitoring and inspection of bridges (Mahnert & Hundhausen, 2017)
Increased scour rate	Use of riprap (FHWA, 2009; Mondoro et al., 2018; Nemry & Demirel, 2012; NRC, 2008); Partially grouted riprap, concrete block systems, gabion mattresses, grout-filled mattresses; Upstream walls and obstructions, collars, etc. (Mondoro et al., 2018; NRC, 2008); Use of sacrificial embankments (Brand, Dewoolkar, & Rizzo, 2017); Increased use of sonars to monitor streambed flow and bridge scour (FHWA, 2009; NRC, 2008); For further scour protection measures see e.g., Arneson, Zevenbergen, Lagasse, and Clopper (2012); and Chen and Duan (2014)
Side-slope failure and Landslides	Adequate slope stabilization measures, river bank protection works (FHWA, 2009; NRC, 2008; Regmi & Hanaoka, 2011); Relocation, modification of slope geometry, drainage, retaining structures, internal slope reinforcement (see, e.g., Chen & Duan, 2014, p. 337)
Foundation settlement	Relocate facilities to more stable ground (Meyer & Weigel, 2011); Incorporate increased ground subsidence in the design of infrastructure (Meyer & Weigel, 2011); Remove permafrost before construction, crushed rock cooling systems, insulation/ground refrigeration systems (CCSP, 2008; Mehrotra et al., 2011; Meyer & Weigel, 2011); Use of different types of passive refrigeration schemes, e.g., thermosiphons, rock galleries, and “cold culverts”, to prevent settlement due to permafrost melt(NRC, 2008); Replacement of ice-rich soils with gravel (Bastedo, 2007)
Rockfalls	Energy dissipating protective structures for bridge piers (He, Yan, Deng, & Liu, 2018); Attenuator fence system and combined wire mesh and cable net drapery, soil berm to provide protection for piers (Graham, Turner & Axtell, 2016); Embankments and ditches, rockfall protection galleries (cushion layer, structural elevation), flexible protection systems (Volkwein et al., 2011).
Snow avalanches	Relocation, early warning systems, flow deflection (e.g., earthfill deflectors) and deceleration methods, structural protection measures (e.g. avalanche sheds), artificial release by explosives, afforestation (Decaulne, 2007; Ganju & Dimiri, 2004; Höller, 2007; Rheinberger, Bründl, & Rhyner, 2009)
Debris flows	Terrain alteration, soil bioengineering, debris flow breakers, debris flow deflectors, etc. (see, e.g., Huebl & Fiebiger, 2005)
Liquefaction	Stone columns (Adalier, Elgamal, Meneses, & Baez, 2003; Adalier & Elgamal, 2004); Gravel and rubber drainage columns (Bahadori, Farzalizadeh, Barghi, & Hasheminezhad, 2018); Chemical grouting, passive site remediation techniques (Gallagher, 2000); Ground improvement methods (grouting), Vibro systems, buttresses and surcharge fills, containment and reinforcement, drains, underpinning with mini-piles, deep dynamic compaction and deep blasting (Cooke & Mitchell, 1999)
Additional loads on piles	For negative skin friction: Treatment of subsiding soils, removal of subsiding soils, sleeve liner to allow the soil to settle without causing downdrag, bitumen coating of piles (Davisson, 1993)
Clay shrinkage and swelling	Wet compaction and lime stabilization (Kasangaki & Towhata, 2009); Geofiber reinforcement (Viswanadham, Phanikumar, & Mukherjee, 2009)
Higher wave impact	Surface coatings, pile wraps, pile jackets, etc. (Mondoro et al., 2018)
Wind-induced loads	Use of guide vanes (Larsen, Esdahl, Andersen, & Vejrum, 2000; Larsen & Larose, 2015); Streamlining the bridge deck cross section for suppressing vortex shedding excitations (Larsen & Larose, 2015); Use of damping devices (e.g., tuned mass dampers, tuned liquid dampers) (Chen et al., 2004; Dieng, Helbert, Chirani, Lecompte, & Pilvin, 2013; Larsen & Larose, 2015; Main & Jones, 2001)
Additional snow load	See the general strengthening and retrofitting measures at the end of the table
Higher risk of thermally-induced stresses	Increased ongoing maintenance (CCSP, 2008); Design for higher maximum temperatures in replacement or new construction (NRC, 2008); Greater use of expansion joints (Meyer & Weigel, 2011; Regmi & Hanaoka, 2011); Paint the bridge white to introduce an albedo effect and reduce overheating (Delgado & Aktas, 2016)
Additional demand on drainage capacity	Upgrading drainage systems (Karl, Melillo, & Peterson, 2009; NRC, 2008); Increases in the standards for drainage capacity for bridges (FHWA, 2009, NRC, 2008); Increase in pavement sloping and grooving (FHWA, 2009); Increase in monitoring of drainage systems (Mehrotra et al., 2011; NRC, 2008)
Higher hydrostatic pressure behind abutments	The use of anchors to stabilize abutments (e.g., Truong-Hong, Laefer, & Ba, 2013; Wade & Davies, 1993); Enlargement of abutment components (Truong-Hong et al., 2013)
Increased loads on bridges with control sluice gates	See the general strengthening and retrofitting measures at the end of the table
Loss of prestressing	More frequent inspection maintenance and retensioning
Ice-induced loads	Scour protection measures to prevent scour damage; Pier protection against the impact from ice flues; Strengthened connections, improved span continuity, and increased elevation to prevent the damage of superstructure from ice accumulation
Water vessel collisions	Fender systems, pile-supported systems, Dolphin protection systems, island protection systems, floating protection systems (see, e.g., Chen & Duan, 2014)
Vehicle-pier collisions	Speed control (Mehrotra et al., 2011), Pier protection (e.g., Williamson & Winget, 2005), Pier strengthening
Vehicle accidents	Speed control (Mehrotra et al., 2011)
Train-pier collisions	Speed control (Mehrotra et al., 2011); Pier protection (e.g., Williamson & Winget, 2005); More frequent wheel truing and maintenance of rails (Delgado & Aktas, 2016)
Floods	Relocation or flood-proofing (Mehrotra et al., 2011; Meyer & Weigel, 2011); Flood control seawalls, dikes, and levees (Stewart & Deng, 2015); Elevation of bridges, strengthening and heightening of existing levees, increase in real-time monitoring of flood levels, restriction of most vulnerable coastal areas from further development, increase insurance rates to help restrict development (NRC, 2008); Channel alteration and stabilization, diversion and storage of floodwaters (e.g., Dunne, 1988); Regulate the flow of water through dams (Batchabani, Sormain, & Fuamba, 2016)
Storms	Elevate critical infrastructures, insert holes, tie-down, restrainers, anchorage bars, etc., concrete shear tabs etc., connect adjacent spans, cladding (e.g., toe nails, hurricane straps, etc.) (Mondoro et al., 2018); Strengthened connections, improved span continuity, modified bridge shape, increased elevation (Cleary, Webb, Douglass, Buhring, & Steward, 2018); Relocation and restriction of development in vulnerable regions (Meyer & Weigel, 2011; NRC, 2008); Strengthening and heightening existing storm surge barriers and building new ones (NRC, 2008)
Wildfires	Vulnerability assessments incorporated into infrastructure location decisions, use of fire-resistant materials and landscaping (Meyer & Weigel, 2011); Installing monitoring systems, installing on site firefighting equipment, implementing structural fire design for bridges, fire proofing main structural elements (Naser & Kodur, 2015); Vegetation management strategies (i.e. control operating situation around the structure by regularly removing vegetation in the vicinity of bridges) (NRC, 2008; Wright, Lattimer, Woodworth, Nahid, & Sotelino, 2013); Bigger expansion gaps, passive fire protection, active fire suppression (e.g. wet pipe water systems, dry pipe water systems, total flooding agents, foam deluge systems) (Wright et al., 2013)
General strengthening and retrofitting measures
Addition of steel cover plates, shear reinforcement (e.g., external, epoxy injection and rebar insertion), jacketing of timber or concrete piles and pier columns (modification jacketing), post-tensioning various bridge components, developing additional bridge continuity, use of CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers) strips (see, e.g. Chen & Duan, 2003)

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