Advances in display technology: augmented reality, virtual reality, quantum dot-based light-emitting diodes, and organic light-emitting diodes

Figures & data

Table 1. Features of recently reported or commercialized AR and VR NEDs.

Name	FOV	Resolution (pixels)	Focus cue	Image combiner	Year	Ref.
Hu et al.	33°×25°	1024 × 768	varifocal	Freeform half-mirror	2014	[4]
Google Glass	13°×7.3°	640 × 360	X	Birdbath	2014	[5]
Yeom et al.			holography	HOE	2015	[6]
HoloLens	30°×17.5°	1366 × 768	X	DOE	2016	[7]
Maimone et al.	80° (diag.)	1920 × 1080	holography	HOE	2017	[8]
Jang et al.	55°×40°	960 × 540	light field	HOE	2017	[9]
Aksit et al.	55° – 63°	1280 × 720	varifocal	Diffuser-type HOE	2017	[10]
Magic Leap	40°×30°	1280 × 960	two layers	DOE	2018	[11]
Lee et al.	90° (diag.)		X	BS + Metasurface lens	2018	[12]
Nreal	52° (diag)	1080 p	X	Birdbath	2019	[13]
Pimax 8K	170°×130°	3840 × 2160	X	VR	2019	[14]
Lee et al.	30°		tomographic	VR	2019	[15]
Kim et al.	75°×78°	60 cpd in fovea	varifocal	HOE	2019	[16]
HoloLens 2	52° (diag)	2048 × 1080	X	DOE	2019	[17]
Oculus Quest 2	89°(H)	1832 × 1920	X	VR	2020	[18]
Lee et al.	80° (diag) for peripheral, 21° (diag) for foveal	30 cpd in foveal; 5 cpd in peripheral	holographic	Polarization-selective optics + HOE	2020	[19]
Tilt Five	110°	1280 × 720	X	Polarized projection + retro-reflector screen	2021	[20]
Bang et al.	102°×102°		X	VR (lenslet array + Fresnel lens + polarized folding optics)	2021	[21]
Cakmakci et al.	29°×12°	1920 × 1080	X	Lightguide + HOE + polarized folding optics	2021	[22]
Yoshikaie et al.	44°×16°	980 × 560	Maxwellian	Free-space HOE	2023	[23]
Qin et al.	25° (diag)	2560 × 2560	multifocal	BS	2023	[24]
Jang et al.	12° (diag)	1300 × 1300	holographic	Waveguide + DOE	2024	[25]

HOE: Holographic Optical Element, DOE: Diffractive Optical Element, cpd: cycles per degree.

Table 2. Slim VR NED techniques reported in 2022, 2023, and 2024.

Type	Feature	Ref.
Pinhole array	Image non-uniformity compensation by multiplexed retinal projection	[30]
Pancake	Stray light analysis and suppression of pancake optics	[31]
Pancake	Optical efficiency enhancement by recycling polarized light	[33]
Pancake	Stray light suppression by optimizing the broadband quarter-wave plate	[34]
Metasurface	Bi-facial metasurface for implementing the pancake lens	[35]

Table 3. AR NED optical combiners reported in 2022 and 2023.

Combiner Type	Feature	Ref.
Waveguide + HOE	2D exit pupil expansion with enhanced uniformity	[37]
Free space + HOE	HOE recording with off-axis aberration compensation using a freeform mirror. Full color by a single HOE	[38]
Free space + HOE	Chromatic and off-axis aberration compensation using dual HOEs and projection optics with a freeform mirror. Full color by a stack of 3 HOEs	[39]
Waveguide + LOE	2D exit pupil expansion, < 2 mm thickness	[40,41]

Table 4. Focus cue supporting NEDs reported in 2022 and 2023.

Focus cue type	Feature	Ref.
Maxwellian	Pin-mirror HOE array as an out-coupler for waveguide AR NED	[42]
Maxwellian	Discrete pupil steering by polarization-dependent combiner (cholesteric liquid crystal off-axis lenses)	[43]
Maxwellian	Pupil replication and steering using a computer-generated hologram	[44]
Maxwellian	Pupil switching using multiple waveguides and HOE out-couplers	[45]
Maxwellian	Free-space HOE combiner. 2D pupil steering by a 1D mechanical shifting of HOE (H) and projector (V)	[23]
Vari-focal	Mechanical shifting of micro-display panel	[46]
Multifocal	Pixel-wise depth using split-Lohman lens + SLM as a dynamic beam deflector	[24]
Multifocal	High-speed electrically controllable diffuser stack + layer image projection	[47]
Light field (super multi-view)	High-speed display panel + pupil steering MEMS mirror, Free-space combiner	[48]
Light field (super multi-view)	DMD + LED array, waveguide + HOE combiner	[49]
Holography	Learning-based aberration compensation	[50]
Holography	Narrow depth of field by mimicking incoherent blur kernel	[51]
Holography	Speckle reduction by hologram optimization using active feedback	[52]
Holography	Multi-illumination expanding FoV and eye box	[53,54]
Holography	FoV expansion using tunable liquid crystal grating	[55]
Holography	Waveguide holographic 3D AR NED without lens. Waveguide aberration pre-compensated in the computer-generated hologram	[25]
Holography	Incoherent holographic camera + holographic 3D display for real-time streaming	[56]

Figure 1. Peak EQEs of QLEDs using Cd-based and Cd-free QDs [64–91].

Table 5. Device performance of Cd-based QLEDs.

	QD structure	Peak wavelength (nm)	FWHM (nm)	Max. Luminance	Max. EQE	Max. CE	T50 @100 cd/m^2 (h)	Ref.
				(cd/m^2)	(%)	(cd/A)
R	CdSe/CdZnSe-ZnSe/ZnS	615	16	3,300,000	20.7	75.6	125,000,000	[84]
	CdZnSe/ZnS	623	22	67,190	32.5	30.3	–	[94]
	CdSe/ZnS	628	–	∼400,000	44.5	93.7	–	[92]
	CdSe/CdZnSe/ZnS	644	–	∼50,000	23.8	–	48,000 T95@1,000 cd/m^2	[95]
	CdSe/CdZnSe/ZnS	609	18	430,000	21.6	51.9	133,100,000	[96]
G	CdSe/ZnS	515	38	218,800	5.8	19.2	600 @500 cd/m^2	[64]
	CdZnSeS/ZnS	538	20	1,680,000	16.6	75.3		[74]
	CdSe/ZnS/ZnS	522	19	106,400	24.8	98.2	–	[68]
	CdSe/ZnS/ZnS	535	27	496,980	22.9	94.7	–	[82]
	CdZnSeS/ZnS	533	25	190,400	19.2	68.3	–	[94]
	CdSe/CdZnSe/ZnS	537	26	∼100,000	28.7	127.00	2,570,000	[93]
	CdZnSeS/ZnS	527	22	∼80,000	20.10	79.80	145 @3,400 cd/m^2	[97]
B	CdZnSe/ZnSe	465	21	2,322	10.1	–	–	[83]
	CdZnSeS/ZnS	475	22	16,370	10.3	8.1	–	[92]
	CdZnSe/ZnS	479	23	∼50,000	21.9	20.00	24,000	[82]
	ZnCdSe/ZnSeS/ ZnCdS/ZnS	471	20	∼10,000	20.80	–	80,377	[98]

^a Estimated from the graph.

Table 6. Device performance of Cd-free QLEDs.

	QD structure	Peak wavelength (nm)	FWHM	Max. Luminance	Max. EQE	Max. CE	T50 @100 cd/m^2 (h)	Ref.
			(nm)	(cd/m^2)	(%)	(cd/A)
R	InP/ZnSeS	623	38	27,800	4.4	8.5		[87]
	InP/ZnSe/ZnS	618	42	10,000	12.2	14.7		[88]
	InP/ZnSe/ZnS	630	35	100,000	21.4	-	T75 of 4,300 @ 985 cd/m^2	[89]
	InP/ZnSe	621	38	107,160	22.5	26.7	112,765	[99]
Yellow	InP/ZnSeS/ZnS	545	56	10,490	1.5	4.44	-	[90]
	InP/ZnSe/ZnS	559	59	3,586	7.76	22.5	290	[102]
G	InP/ZnSeS	539	37	17,400	3.4	21.6	2.5 @ 300 cd/m^2	[87]
	InP/ZnSeS/ZnS	545	39	12,646	16.3	57.5	1033.4	[100]
	InP/ZnS	535	39	52,730	7.93	-	280.75	[103]
B	ZnSeTe	445	27	2,904	9.5	5.3	-	[104]
	ZnSeTe	457	35	88,900	20.2	-	15,850	[105]
	ZnSeTe	452	22	-	18.0	-	49.1	[101]

^a Estimated from the graph.

Table 7. Device performance of inkjet-printed QLEDs.

	Peak wavelength (nm)	FWHM	Max. Luminance	Turn-on Voltage	Max. EQE	Max. CE	Ref.
		(nm)	(cd/m^2)	(V)	(%)	(cd/A)
R	630	30	73,360	2.3	2.8	3.3	[106]
	624	27	10,000	2.2	18.3	26.6	[111]
	630	–	104,826	2.2	19.3	–	[109]
	625	42	17,559	–	8.1	11.1	[112]
	628	29	–	3.9	18.4	24.4	[113]
G	548	33	3,000	6	2.4	2.8	[107]
	525	–	13,445	4	1.29	4.21	[114]
	530	–	283,996	3	18	–	[109]
	542	28	–	3.3	13.3	60.6	[113]
B	465	–	2,367	3.5	4.4	–	[109]
	475	25	–	3.1	6.82	5.69	[110]
	475	26	–	4.5	5.6	4.9	[113]

^a Estimated from the graph.

Table 8. QD patterning with direct photolithography.

Methods	QD	Color	Materials	Pattern size	Ref.
Photosensitive additive	CdSe	R, G, B	ethane-1,2-dial bis (4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzoate)	4 µm × 16 µm	[117]
	CdSe	G	2-(4-methoxyethyl)-4,6-bis(trichloromethyl)−1,3,5-triazine 2-diazo-1-naphthol-4-sulfonic acid	1.5 µm (line)	[118]
	CdSe	R, G, B	ZnCl2	10 µm (line)	[119]
	InP	R, G, B	ethane-1,2-diyl bis (4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzoate)	1 µm (line)	[115]
	InP	R, G, B	2-(4-methoxyethyl)−4,6-bis(trichloromethyl)−1,3,5-triazine	1 µm (line)	[120]
Crosslinkable ligand	CdSe	R	2-phenyl-2-(5-((tosyloxy)-imino) thiophen-2-ylidene)acetonitrile	100 nm (line)	[121]
	CdSe	R	poly(vinyltriphenylamine-random-azidostyrene)	5 µm (line)	[122]
	CdSe InP	R, G, B	Benzophenone	0.8 µm × 0.8 µm	[116]

Figure 2. EQEs of fluorescent, phosphorescent, and TADF OLEDs.

Table 9. Device performance of fluorescent, TADF, hyperfluorescence, and phosphorescent OLEDs reported in 2022 and 2023.

Type	Color	λEL^a	FWHM^b	EQE^c (%)		CE^d (cd/A)		Color coordinates		Lifetime	Ref.
		(nm)	(nm)	(1000 cd/m^2)	(Max)	(1000 cd/m^2)	(Max)	x	y	(h)
FL	Blue	453	19	8.7	9.1	–	–	0.142	0.066	230 (LT80, 2000 cd/m^2)	[123]
		471	22	10.9	11.4	10.5	11.4	0.116	0.133	208 (LT95, 1000 cd/m^2)	[124]
		457	26	–	10.4	–	–	0.13	0.07	79 (LT95, 1000 cd/m^2)	[125]
		459	18	–	9.1	–	–	0.135	0.079	346 (LT95, 1525 cd/m^2)	[126]
TADF	Red	610	39	31.1	35.7	–	59.4	0.64	0.34	–	[127]
		618	39	29.8	34.4	–	46.5	0.65	0.35	–	[127]
		625	40	32.1	36.1	–	43.4	0.66	0.34	–	[127]
	Green	520	34	32.3	35.8	111.8	112.5	0.16	0.67	–	[128]
		517	34	28.1	40.1	–	141.2	0.19	0.70	35 (LT50, 1000 cd/m^2)	[129]
		516	34	18.6	37.3	–	131.0	0.19	0.70	354 (LT50, 1000 cd/m^2)	[129]
		548	35	31.3	34.9	–	145.8	0.35	0.63	–	[130]
		524	33	–	37.3	–	129.8	0.23	0.71	–	[131]
		528	35	26.3	36.5	–	130.0	0.27	0.70	–	[131]
		520	29	20.4	35.2	127.0	132.9	0.19	0.74	–	[132]
	Blue	472	28	16.2	30.8	25.0	47.1	0.14	0.22	–	[133]
		471	18	20.4 (400 cd/m^2)	36.2	18.6 (400 cd/m^2)	32.1	0.12	0.12	–	[134]
		464	18	16.7 (400 cd/m^2)	35.8	14.7 (400 cd/m^2)	26.8	0.13	0.08	–	[134]
		461	18	17.9 (400 cd/m^2)	33.7	13.2 (400 cd/m^2)	24.9	0.13	0.06	–	[134]
		455	29	17.8	30.7	9.2	15.7	0.14	0.06	–	[135]
		460	29	20.5	32.5	12.9	19.4	0.14	0.07	–	[135]
		473	28	14.8 (100 cd/m^2)	33.8	–	43.4	0.111	0.188	–	[136]
		466	38	–	30.8	–	34.1	0.13	0.14	–	[137]
HF	Red	643	42	31.4	34.4	–	25.2	0.708	0.292	605 (LT95, 5000 cd/m^2)	[138]
	Green	523	23	17.2	30.5	–	–	0.22	0.74	82.3 (LT95, 5000 cd/m^2)	[139]
		545	32	34.4	37.1	–	153.4	0.35	0.63	–	[130]
	Blue	457	28	9.3	31.2	–	20.9	0.14	0.08	–	[140]
		467	23	15.5	33.2	–	29.7	0.13	0.11	–	[140]
		458	23	26.2	37.6	–	27.5	0.14	0.08	–	[140]
		474	33	7.7	30.5	–	42.6	0.116	0.213	–	[136]
		–	–	25.8	29.1^e	27.7	–	–	0.165	72.9 (LT95, 1000 cd/m^2)	[141]
PH	Blue	–	43	23.4	25.4	28.2	31.8	0.141	0.197	150/1113 (LT95/LT70, 1000 cd/m^2)	[142]
		473	52	22.4	26.5	41.7	50.7	0.144	0.294	370 (LT75, 100 cd/m^2)	[143]

^a Wavelength of electroluminescence emission spectrum.

^bFull-width-at-half-maximum of the electroluminescence emission spectrum.

^cExternal quantum efficiency.

^dCurrent efficiency.

^eEstimated value from reported efficiency roll-off.

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