Human rights issues in host countries of the Olympic Games and resulting differences in consumer evaluations

Figures & data

Figure 1. Conceptual model about the influence of human right violations in host countries of Olympic Games on consumer attitude and intentions.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and differences between experimental groups.

	Study 1					Study 2
	High-severity		Low-severity			High-severity		Low-severity
Variables	M	SD	M	SD	t test results	M	SD	M	SD	t test results
Achievement in competition	5.94	0.90	5.93	0.90	t(709) = 0.16, p = .87, d = .01	6.67	0.66	6.63	0.68	t(722) = 0.88, p = .38, d = .06
Friendly relations with others	5.67	0.92	5.64	0.97	t(709) = 0.49, p = .62, d = .03	5.46	1.23	5.43	1.18	t(722) = 1.18, p = .24, d = .02
Appreciation of diversity	5.70	0.99	5.64	0.99	t(709) = 0.82, p = .41, d = .06	5.68	0.98	5.69	0.99	t(722) = −0.10, p = .92, d = .01
Attitude toward the OG	5.25	1.55	5.67	1.06	t(709) = −5.15, p < .001, d = .32	5.17	1.68	5.86	1.48	t(722) = −5.90, p < .001, d = .44
Intentions to follow the OG	5.17	1.22	5.16	1.16	t(709) = 0.08, p = .93, d = .01	3.75	1.41	4.02	1.42	t(722) = −2.56, p = .01, d = .19

Notes: OG = Olympic Games. For ease of interpretation, raw scores of the means for the Olympic Value Scale are presented. All variables are reported on a scale from 1 (lowest level of agreement) to 7 (highest level of agreement). High- vs. low-severity refers to human rights violations.

Table 2. Differences in perceptions of human rights issues between experimental groups.

	Study 1					Study 2
	High-severity		Low-severity			High-severity		Low-severity
Variables	M	SD	M	SD	t test results	M	SD	M	SD	t test results
Freedom of residents^a	2.16	0.61	2.40	0.55	t(709) = −5.64, p < .001, d = .41	2.39	0.57	2.58	0.57	t(722) = −4.57, p < .001, d = .33
Economic freedom^b	3.53	0.97	3.90	0.84	t(709) = −5.42, p < .001, d = .41	3.41	1.13	3.60	1.13	t(722) = −2.23, p = .03, d = .17
Freedom of press^c	3.47	1.22	3.92	0.89	t(709) = −5.62, p < .001, d = .42	3.67	1.13	3.96	1.07	t(722) = −3.47, p < .001, d = .26
Democracy^d	2.81	0.91	3.25	0.68	t(709) = −7.29, p < .001, d = .55	2.97	0.75	3.15	0.72	t(722) = −3.23, p = .001, d = .24

Notes: ^aReported on a scale from 1 (‘not free’) to 3 (‘free’). ^bReported on a scale from 1 (‘repressed’) to 5 (‘free’). ^cReported on a scale from 1 (‘very serious situation’) to 5 (‘good situation’). ^dReported on a scale from 1 (‘authoritarian regime’) to 4 (‘full democracy’). High- vs. low-severity refers to human rights violations.

Figure 2. Consumer attitude toward, and intentions to follow, the Olympic Games depending on whether they are hosted in a country with (vs. without) severe human rights violations (Study 1).

Table 3. Parameter estimates of structural paths.

	Study 1							Study 2
	High-severity			Low-severity			Chi square difference tests (constrained vs. unconstrained models)	High-severity			Low-severity			Chi square difference tests (constrained vs. unconstrained models)
Hypotheses	B	SE	p	B	SE	p		B	SE	p	B	SE	p
H3a: Achievement in competition → Attitude	−.46	.06	<.001	.10	.08	.20	χ^2(1) = 43.42, p < .001	−.16	.06	.007	−.06	.07	.36	χ^2(1) = 1.11, p = .29
H3b: Friendly relations with others → Attitude	.21	.05	<.001	−.03	.07	.70	χ^2(1) = 7.89, p = .005	.24	.05	<.001	.09	.06	.14	χ^2(1) = 2.20, p = .14
H3c: Appreciation of diversity → Attitude	.04	.06	.49	.00	.07	.98	χ^2(1) = 0.04, p = .84	−.09	.05	.12	.03	.07	.65	χ^2(1) = 2.09, p = .15
Knowledge → Attitude	NA			NA				.14	.05	.003	.15	.05	.002	χ^2(1) = 0.66, p = .42
Country image → Attitude	NA			NA				.38	.04	<.001	.32	.05	<.001	χ^2(1) = 4.33, p = .04
H4: Attitude → Intentions	.60	.03	<.001	.42	.04	<.001	χ^2(1) = 7.66, p = .006	.53	.04	<.001	.50	.04	<.001	χ^2(1) = 0.91, p = .34
Achievement in competition → Intentions	−.30	.04	<.001	−.39	.06	<.001	χ^2(1) = 2.10, p = .15	−.26	.05	<.001	−.27	.06	<.001	χ^2(1) = 2.01, p = .16
Friendly relations with others → Intentions	.23	.04	<.001	.12	.06	.04	χ^2(1) = 43.42, p < .001	.17	.05	<.001	.18	.05	.001	χ^2(1) = 1.53, p = .22
Appreciation of diversity → Intentions	−.09	.04	.03	−.11	.06	.06	χ^2(1) = 7.89, p = .005	.00	.05	.99	.13	.06	.03	χ^2(1) = 4.63, p = .03
Knowledge → Intentions	NA			NA				.13	.04	.002	.09	.04	.03	χ^2(1) = 0.35, p = .56
Country image → Intentions	NA			NA				.01	.04	.81	.09	.04	.04	χ^2(1) = 2.30, p = .13

Notes: NA = Not Assessed. Attitude reflects attitude toward the Olympic Games, intentions refer to behavioral intentions to follow the Olympic Games. B = standardized beta coefficient, SE = standard error, p = significance. High- vs. low-severity refers to human rights violations.