War and Its Remembrance: The Perspective from Japan

Abstract

Maria Hsia Chang is Professor of Political Science at the University of Nevada, Reno (UNR) Takuma Hasegawa received his M.A. in Political Science from UNR in June 2006.

Notes

1. Anthony Faiola, “Japanese Claim Touches Nerve in South Korea,” Washington Post, March 19, 2005.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. James Traub, “The World According to China,” New York Times (NYT), September 3, 2006.

5. Anthony Faiola, “Wartime Wounds Inflicted by Japan Still Fester in Asia,” San Francisco Chronicle (SFC), August 16, 2005, p. A7.

6. SFC, August 15, 2005, p. A7.

7. “Staying Positive,” Beijing Review, www.bjreview.com.cn/06-03-e/VIEWPOIJNT-2.htm.

8. Kin-ming Liu, “Koizumi's Shrine Game,” New York Sun, August 14, 2006.

9. Charles Burress, “Wrestling With Ghosts of War,” San Francisco Chronicle (hereafter SFC), August 3, 2005, p. A7.

10. James Traub, “The World According to China.”

11. Kin-ming Liu, “Honest Abe: Koizumi's likely successor will continue to visit the Yasukuni shrine,” Weekly Standard, August 18, 2006.

12. Ibid.

13. Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), p. 71.

14. For an analysis of the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, see Maria Hsia Chang and Robert Barker, “Victor's Justice and Japan's Amnesia: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial Reconsidered,” in Peter Li (ed.), Japanese War Crimes (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publ., 2003).

15. Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, pp. 2, 4–5.

16. John W. Dower, “Foreword,” in Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. xiv.

17. Gavan McCormack, “Japan's Uncomfortable Past,” History Today, 48:5 (May 1998), p. 6.

18. Robert J. Myers, Korea in the Cross Currents: A century of Struggle and the Crisis of Reunification (New York, NY: Palgrave, 2001), p. 36.

19. N. A., Shinsho Nihonshi Zusetsu (New Japanese History Illustration) (Nagoya, Aichi: Hamashima Shoten, 1997), p. 205.

20. Kanji Sasaki, et al., Shin Nihonshi (New Japanese History), Part I (Tokyo: Shimizu Shoin, 1997), p. 140.

21. New Japanese History Illustration, p. 174.

22. N. A., Atarashii Rekishi (New History) (Nagoya, Aichi: Hamashima Shoten, 1992), p. 143.

23. Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 197.

24. New Japanese History Illustration, p. 205; Sasaki, A New Japanese History, p. 140.

25. Hal Gold, Unit 731 Testimony (Tokyo: Yen Books, 1996), p. 28.

26. As an example, Tokyo governor and former cabinet minister Ishihara Shintaro said that the massacre of innocent men, women, and children in Nanjing was “a story made up by the Chinese.” Coco Kubota, “Debate on Nanking Massacre Continues in Japan,” Deutsche Presses-Agentur, December 11, 1999.

27. Michael Berry, “Cinematic Representations of the Rape of Nanking,” in Peter Li (ed.), Japanese War Crimes, p. 203.

28. Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (New York: Basic Books, 1998), pp. 4, 6.

29. Convention (IV) of 18 October 1907 Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, http://www.tufts.edu/departments/fletcher/multi/texts/BH036.txt.

30. Gold, Unit 731 Testimony, pp. 75, 112.

31. New History.

32. Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, pp. 71, 70.

33. Ibid., p. 60.

34. Ibid., p. 61.

35. Ibid., pp. 59–61.

36. Ibid., p. 65.

37. Ibid., pp. 60, 65, 61.

38. Ibid., pp. 71, 2.

39. Gold, Unit 731 Testimony, pp. 26, 48, 60.

40. Sheldon H. Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932–1945, and the American Cover-ups (New York, NY: Routledge, 2002), pp. xxix-xxx, 83.

41. Gold, Unit 731 Testimony, pp. 34, 39, 67, 51.

42. Ibid., pp. 48–54, 57–58, 61.

43. Ibid., pp. 70, 24, 40, 41.

44. Ibid., pp. 36, 44–45, 80–83.

45. Ibid., pp. 36, 104.

46. Mari Yamaguchi, “Veteran of Japan's germ warfare unit calls on government to confess to killings,” Associated Press, July 30, 2002.

47. Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague Upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 2004), p. xii.

48. In contrast, 363,000 to 500,000 Japanese were killed in the Allied bombing (conventional and nuclear) of Japan. Matthew White, “Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm,” pp. 1, 2, 6–7, 10, http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm, accessed November 25, 2003.

49. Atarashii Rekishi (New History).

50. Burress, “Wrestling With Ghosts of War.”

51. Hajime Iwaki, “Ha'erbin Hatsu no Nanda Kottya? (From Ha'erbin, What is That?),” Asahi Shimbun, September 30, 2004, http://www.asahi.com/column/aic/Thu/d_iwaki/20040930.html.

52. “Most Japanese Think Tokyo Has Apologised Enough For War Wrongs,” Agence France-Presse, October 27, 2005.

53. “Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China,” September 29, 1972, The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (hereafter, MFAJ), http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/china/joint72.html.

54. “Overview of Official Development Assistance (ODA) to China,” June 2005, MFAJ, http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/oda/region/e_asia/china/index.html.

55. The yen to dollar conversion is according to the exchange rates on July 21, 2006.

56. “Overview of Official Development Assistance (ODA) to China.”

57. Dermot Shortall, “Courageous Stand On Yasukuni,” Japan Times, February 8, 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/rc20060208a1.html.

58. Masao Okazaki, Number 104, Kokkai Kaigiroku System (National Diet Library), January 31, 1952, http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/cgi-bin/KENSAKU/swk_dispdoc.cgi?SESSION=15450&SAVED_RID=1&PAGE=0&POS=0&TOTAL=0SRV_ID=1&DOC_ID=12037&DPAGE=2&DTOTAL=37&DPOS=35&SORT_DIR=1&SORT_TYPE=0&MODE=1&DMY=15510.

59. “China Says Economic Aid Cannot Offset Japan's Wartime Past,” Xinhua, June 8, 2005.

60. James Traub, “The World According to China.”

61. Burress, “Wrestling With Ghosts of War”; Faiola, “Japanese Claim Touches Nerve in South Korea.”

62. The only exception to the MOE's non-interference was its emendation of a textbook to read: “Estimates of the total number of victims of the Rape of Nanjing ranged from 100,000 to 300,000. There are various opinions.” Mainichi Shimbun, March 30, 2006, www.mainichi-msn.co.jp/shakai/edu/news/20060330k0000m040147000c.html.

63. Burress, “Wrestling With Ghosts of War.”

64. Liu, “Honest Abe: Koizumi's likely successor will continue to visit the Yasukuni shrine.”

65. Blaise Pascal, Pensees (New York: Penguin Books, 1966), p. 14.

66. The reality, however, is different from what Japanese believe about themselves. Recent DNA studies show that the people of Japan are not racially-ethnically homogeneous. Instead, modern Japanese are a mix of 35 percent Jomon and 65 percent Yayoi, the latter being Korean in origin. The DNA diversity appears as considerable regional variation in physical appearance: Japanese in the northern prefectures tend to be more Jomon (60–80%), with rounder eyes, more body hair, and wider faces, whereas those in western or southern Japan are 40 percent Jomon. See Nicholas D. Kristof, “Out of the Mist Looms, Maybe, the First Japanese,” New York Times (NYT), April 2, 1999.

67. Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Riverside Press, 1946), pp. 2–3.

68. The religion at first had no name. The term Shinto, or Shintou (Way of the Gods), of Chinese origin, was applied to it only after the infiltration in sixth century A. D. of Confucianism and Buddhism into Japan, so as to distinguish the indigenous religion from the foreign faiths. Robert O. Ballou, Shinto: The Unconquered Enemy (NY: Viking, 1945), p. 9.

69. Ballou, Shinto, p. 27.

70. Ibid., pp. 9–10.

71. Koremaru Sakamoto, Hasseiki no Gendai Shinto (Modern Shinto at the Occurrence) (Tokyo, Shinto Seinen Zenkoku Kyougikai, 1989), p. 235.

72. Quoted in Ballou, Shinto, pp. 22–23.

73. Isao Tokoro, Yasukuni no Inori (Invocation of Yasukuni) (Tokyo, Jinjya Shinposha, 2003), p. 159.

74. Ibid., p. 137.

75. Ballou, Shinto, p. 20.

76. J. W. T. Mason, The Spirit of Shinto Mythology (Tokyo: Fuzambo Co., 1939), p. 18.

77. “Shinto rejects entirely the idea of foreknowledge or omnipotent control over the universe.” Mason, Spirit of Shinto Mythology, p. 8.

78. Ballou, Shinto, p. 11.

79. Interview by Takuma Hasegawa of Akihiko Kuroiwa of the Public Relations Section Edification Department (Jinjya-Honcho), on January 7, 2004.

80. Hitoshi Miyake, Religion in Japanese culture: Where Living Traditions Meet a Changing World (New York, Kondansha International, 1996), pp. 94–95.

81. Sadasumi Motegi, Shintoto Matsuri no Dentou (Tradition of Shinto and Festival) (Tokyo, Jinjya Shinposha, 2002), pp. 168–170.

82. Tokoro, Invocation of Yasukuni, pp. 161–172.

83. Kenji Ueda, Shinoto (Shinto) (Tokyo: Jinjya Honcho, 1999), pp. 25–26.

84. Floyd Hiatt Ross, Shinto: The Way of Japan (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1965), p. 108.

85. Benedict, Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 191–192.

86. Tokoro, Invocation of Yasukuni, pp. 140–144.

87. Ibid., pp. 192–193.

88. Yasuo Nagayama, “mune wo hatte yasukuni ni mairu niha (How can we visit the Yasukuni Shrine throwing our chest out?),” in Kensho: Yasukunimondai toha Nanika (Verification: What is the Isuue of Yasukuni), edited by PHP Kenkyujyo (Tokyo, PHP Kenkyujyo, 2002), p. 70.

89. Yasukuni Shrine Editing Committee, Yasukuni no Inori–Medemiru Meji, Taisho, Showa, Heisei (Invocation of Yasukuni–View from Meiji, Taisho, Showa, Heisei) (Sankei Shimbun News Service, 1999), p. 264.

90. Given China's continuing objections to the Japanese prime minister's visits to the shrine, it is ironic that the name “Yasukuni” actually was derived from an ancient Chinese chronicle Chunqiu (Spring-Autumn). Nagayama, Verification: What is the Isuue of Yasukuni Kensho, p. 75.

91. This tradition of honoring the loser goes as far back as the mythical account in the Japanese people's first chronicle, Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), of Ookuninushi no Mikoto receiving a shrine equal in splendor to the palace of the emperor. That is why in Japan today, the Izumo Shrine to Mikoto is bigger than the emperor's Ise Shrine. See Kojiki, pp. 134–136.

92. Tokutarou Sakurai, as quoted in Shinobu Ooe, Yasukuni Jinjya (Yasukuni Shrine) (Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 1984), p. 120.

93. Ibid., p. 115.

94. Tokoro, Invocation of Yasukuni, pp. 192–193.

95. Ooe Yasukuni Jinjya (Yasukuni Shrine), p. 2.

96. Ibid., pp. 17–18.

97. Ibid., p. 112.

98. Yasuo Nagayama, “How can we visit the Yasukuni Shrine throwing our chest out?,” p. 66.

99. Ooe Yasukuni Jinjya (Yasukuni Shrine), p. 39.

100. Tokoro, Invocation of Yasukuni, p. 197.

101. “Preface,” TWCT, p. 8.

102. “Tokyo War Trial: Changing the Evaluation,” Mainichi Shimbun, April 30, 2006, www.mainichi-msn.co.jp/today/news/20060430k0000m04131000c.html.

103. N.A., A-kyu Senpan toha Nanda? (What is the A class War Criminal?) (Tokyo: Shinto Seiji Renmei, 1987), p. 22.

104. Ibid., p.18; Yukie Kudo, “Yasuku ni hone ya ihai ga arumonodesuka! (There is no ash and Buddhist memorial tablet at the Yasukuni Shrine),” in Kensho (Verification), p. 101.

105. What is the A class War Criminal?, pp. 23–24.

106. “Yasukuni and Politics,” Mainichi Shimbun, July 12, 2005.

107. Keiichiro Kobori, “Yasukuni jinjya no seitousei ha yurugazu (Legitimacy of Yasukuni Shrine does not waiver),” in Kensho (Verification), p. 240.

108. Prime Ministers Kijyuro Shidehara, Shigeru Yoshida, Nobusuke Kishi, Hayato Ikeda, Eisaku Sato, Kakuei Tanaka, Takeo Miki, Takeo Fukuda, Masayoshi Oohira, Zenko Suzuki, and Yasuhiro Nakasone.

109. “Yasukuni and Politics,” Mainichi Shimbun, July 19, 2005.

110. Phone interview by Takuma Hasegawa of Yasukuni Shrine spokesman, on March 5 and 9, 2006; N.A., “70% of Japanese and 90% of twenties don't know the Tokyo War Trial,” Asahi Shimbun, May 2, 2002, http://www.asahi.com/politics/update/0502/002.html.

111. Birei Kin, “Heitaisanyo, arigatou (Soldiers, Thank You),” in Kensho (Verification), p. 316.

112. Reiji Yoshida, “Koizumi Kicks Off New Year Defiant Toward Beijing and Seoul,” Japan Times, January 5, 2006, http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20060105a1.htm.

113. Benedict, Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 98–99.

114. Ibid., pp. 100–103.

115. Birei Kin, “Soldiers, Thank You,” pp. 314–316.

116. Benedict, Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 192–193

117. Paul Murphy, “Yasukuni Museum Tugs at Heartstrings to Keep Military Memories Alive,” Asahi Shimbun News Service, August 15, 2002.

118. “Letter to my beloved child,” http://www.geocities.jp/kamikazes_site_e/isyo/isyobun/uemurataii.html.

119. Benedict, Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 54–55.

120. Ibid., p. 224.

121. Birei Kin, “Soldiers, Thank You,” p. 310.

122. Benedict, Chrysanthemum and the Sword, p. 164.

123. Kin-ming Liu, “Koizumi's Shrine Game.”

124. China's Ministry of Public Security put the total number of “mass incidents”—riots, demonstrations and smaller protests—at a total 87,000 for 2005, an increase of 6.6 percent from the estimated 74,000 incidents in 2004. Chris Buckley, “China to ‘strike hard’ against rising unrest,” Reuters, January 26, 2006.

125. Bunyu Ko, Yasukuni , September 1, 2002, pp. 6–7.

126. Bunyu Ko, Kensho, pp. 272–273.

127. Tracy Quek, “Coverage of Shrine Visit Restrained in China,” Straits Times, Aug. 17, 2006.

128. Kin-ming Liu, “Koizumi's Shrine Game.”

129. Bunyu Ko, Verification: What is the Issue of Yasukuni, pp. 278–279.

130. See Jean-Louis Margolin's account in Stephane Courtois, et al., The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Harvard University, 1999), pp. 463–546.

131. For an account of the persecution of Falun Gong and other religious groups in China, see Chapters One and Five of Maria Hsia Chang, Falun Gong: The End of Days (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004).

132. Mari Yamaguchi, “Veteran of Japan's Germ Warfare Unit Calls On Government to Confess to Killings,” Associated Press, July 30, 2002.

133. Gold, Unit 731 Testimony, pp. 97–98; Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, p. 70.

134. See Howard W. French, “Japan's Resurgent Far Right Tinkers With History,” NYT, March 25, 2001, and Rikki Kersten, “Neo-Nationalism and the ‘Liberal School of History,’  ” Japan Forum, 11:2 (1999), pp. 191–203.

135. Howard W. French, “Japan Rewrites Its Manchuria Story,” NYT, September 19, 2004. An example of the revisionists is popular manga author Yoshinori Kobayashi. In his books, Kobayashi presents Japan as a liberator of other Asian countries rather than an oppressor, and dismisses some of Japan's wartime atrocities such as the military's coercion of comfort women. See Yoshinori Kobayashi, Sensouron (On War) (Tokyo: Gentosha, 1998).

136. Hans Greimel, “Museum Paints Different WWII History,” Associated Press, August 14, 2002.

137. See K. T. Greenfeld, “The Curious Clout of Japan's Right,” Nation, 253:5 (August 12–19, 1991).

138. See Kenneth Szymkowiak and Patricia G. Steinhoff, “Wrapping Up in Something Long: Intimidation and Violence by Right-Wing Groups in Postwar Japan,” Terrorism and Political Violence, 7:1 (Spring 1995), pp. 265–298.

139. Asahi Shimbun, August 16, 2006.

140. Anthony Faiola, “Japan's Leaders Consider Legality of a First Strike,” SFC, July 11, 2006, p. A8.

141. “Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China,” September 29, 1972.

142. Soichiro Tahara, Nihon no Sensou (Japanese War) (Tokyo, Shogakukan: 2005), p. 189.

143. “Statement by Chief Cabinet Secretary Kiichi Miyazawa on History Textbook” August 26, 1982 MFAJ, http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/postwar/state8208.html

144. “Statement by the Emperor Hirohito for the Korean President, Chon Tu-hwan, Reception Dinner Party,” September 6, 1984, Nakano Bunko (Nakano Library), http://www.geocities.jp/nakanolib/choku/cs59.htm.

145. Soichiro Tahara, Japanese War, p. 189.

146. Foreign Affairs Committee No.3, Speech Number 66, Kokkai Kaigiroku System (National Diet Library), http://kokkai.ndl.go.jp/cgi-bin/KENSAKU/swk_dispdoc.cgi?SESSION=11427&SAVED_RID=5&PAGE=0&POS=0&TOTAL=0&SRV_ID=6&DOC_ID=6246&DPAGE=3 & DTOTAL=109 & DPOS=60 & SORT_DIR=1 & SORT_TYPE=0 & MODE=1 &DMY=11990.

147. “Redemption's Reward,” The Economist, August 24, 1991, p. 16.

148. “Statement by the Emperor Akihito for the Korean President, No T'ae-u, Reception Dinner Party,” May 24, 1990, Nakano Library, http://www.geocities.jp/nakanolib/choku/ch02.htm.

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156. McCormack, “Japan's Uncomfortable Past,” p. 5.

157. “Statement by Prime Minister Morihiro Hosokawa,” August 23, 1993, Tokyo University Institute of Oriental Study Laboratory Akihiko Tanaka, http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/.

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162. “Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama on the Occasion of the Establishment of the ‘Asian Women's Fund,’” July 11, 1995, MFAJ, http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/women/fund/state9507.html.

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