Changing the call: rethinking attrition and retention in the ice hockey officiating ranks

Abstract

On-ice officials are a vital part of the Canadian amateur hockey system, yet annual attrition rates are alarmingly high at 30%. Previous research has largely emphasized the role of stress/psychological factors as contributors to officiating dropout. In contrast, we explore a broad range of factors that might contribute to amateur ice hockey officials' decisions to discontinue their participation. We observe that new, inexperienced officials were more likely to cite stress/psychological factors (e.g. verbal abuse, threat of abuse) while experienced long-serving officials were more likely to indicate career or family demands as their primary reason for leaving officiating. Importantly, regardless of experience level, organizational factors emerged as secondary yet omnipresent contributors to these decisions. Thus, the purpose of this investigation is to re-examine the qualitative responses received in our two aforementioned investigations using an analytical framework premised on the theory of perceived organizational support. Our findings reveal, in order of descending frequency, that officials who had discontinued their participation felt negatively about their local hockey associations with respect to the lack of (1) opportunities to move up the ranks; (2) appropriate fee structures to pay them what they deserve; (3) assistance to help them perform their duties to the best of their abilities; (4) consideration given to officials' best interests when making decisions that affect them and (5) appreciation for their efforts. These findings provide important insights into issues that local hockey associations might address in an effort to retain officials.

Notes

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² Ahmed et al., ‘Open Access’; and Davidson, ‘End of Print’.

³ Trudel, Cote, and Sylvestre, ‘Systematic Observation of Ice Hockey’, 66.

⁴ Betts, Forbes, and Livingston, ‘Factors Contributing to Attrition’, 16.

⁵ Philippe et al., ‘Passion in Referees’, 77.

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⁷ Boylen, ‘Shift Change’; Proudfoot, ‘It's a Rough Sport’; and Ross and Vaughn, ‘Strategies for Successfully’.

⁸ Anderson, ‘Behind the Whistle’; CBC, ‘400 Young Officials Quit’; and Stevenson, ‘Third Team’.

⁹ Deacon, ‘Rink Rage’; ‘Fans’ Abuse may Result in Arena Ban'. Globe and Mail, April 15, 1985, S5; ‘Roundup: Peewees’ Parents Charged with Assault'. Globe and Mail, March 6, 1982, S8; Hall, ‘Crown Wants Heavy Fine’; Perreaux, ‘Ref Abandons Game’; Proudfoot, ‘It's a Rough Sport’; and Wilton, ‘Player Charged with Rink Assault’.

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¹¹ Eisenberger et al. ‘Perceived Organizational Support’.

¹² Anshel and Weinberg, ‘Sources of Acute Stress’; Burke, Joyner, and Pim, ‘Exploratory Investigation’; Goldsmith and Williams, ‘Perceived Stressors for Football’; Kaissidis-Rodafinos, Anshel, and Sideridis, ‘Sources, Intensity, and Responses’; Longmore, ‘Psychological Pressures on Cricket’; Rainey, ‘Sources of Stress’; Rainey and Hardy, ‘Ratings of Stress by Rugby’; and Stewart and Ellery, ‘Sources and Magnitude’.

¹³ Anshel et al., ‘Model for Coping’; Anshel and Weinberg, ‘Sources of Acute Stress’; Kaissidis-Rodafinos, Anshel, and Porter, ‘Persona Land Situational Factors’; and Kaissidis-Rodafinos, Anshel, and Sideridis, ‘Sources, Intensity, and Responses’.

¹⁴ Anshel et al., ‘Model for Coping’; Rainey and Hardy, ‘Ratings of Stress by Rugby’; and Stewart and Ellery, ‘Sources and Magnitude’.

¹⁵ Rainey, ‘Stress, Burnout, and Intention’; and Rainey and Hardy, ‘Sources of Stress, Burnout’.

¹⁶ Anshel et al., ‘Model for Coping’; and Kaissidid-Rodafinos et al., ‘Sources, Intensity, and Responses’.

¹⁷ Dorsch and Paskevich, ‘Stressful Experiences among Six’; Goldsmith and Williams, ‘Perceived Stressors for Football’; and Stewart and Ellery, ‘Sources and Magnitude’.

¹⁸ Rainey, ‘Sources of Stress’, ‘Stress, Burnout, and Intention’; and Rainey and Cherilla, ‘Conflict with Baseball Umpires’.

¹⁹ Anshel and Weinberg, ‘Sources of Acute Stress’; Kaissidis-Rodafinos, Anshel, and Porter, ‘Persona Land Situational Factors’; and Kaissidis-Rodafinos, Anshel, and Sideridis, ‘Sources, Intensity, and Responses’.

²⁰ Longmore ‘Psychological Pressures on Cricket’.

²¹ Goldsmith and Williams, ‘Perceived Stressors for Football’.

²² Dorsch and Paskevich, ‘Stressful Experiences among Six’.

²³ Nesti and Sewell, ‘Losing It: The Importance’; Rainey and Hardy, ‘Ratings of Stress by Rugby’; and Rainey and Hardy, ‘Sources of Stress, Burnout’.

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²⁵ Bar-Eli et al., ‘Crisis-Related Analysis’; and Voight, 2009.

²⁶ Bar-Eli et al., ‘Crisis-Related Analysis’.

²⁷ Goldsmith and Williams, ‘Perceived Stressors for Football’; Stewart and Ellery, ‘Amount of Psychological Stress’; and Stewart and Ellery, ‘Sources and Magnitude’.

²⁸ Bar-Eli et al., ‘Crisis-Related Analysis’.

²⁹ Anshel and Weinberg, ‘Sources of Acute Stress’; Kaissidis-Rodafinos, Anshel, and Porter, ‘Persona Land Situational Factors’; Kaissidis-Rodafinos, Anshel, and Sideridis, ‘Sources, Intensity, and Responses’; Rainey and Hardy, ‘Ratings of Stress by Rugby’; and Rainey and Hardy, ‘Sources of Stress, Burnout’.

³⁰ Dorsch and Paskevich, ‘Stressful Experiences among Six’; Goldsmith and Williams, ‘Perceived Stressors for Football’; Stewart and Ellery, ‘Amount of Psychological Stress’; and Stewart and Ellery, ‘Sources and Magnitude’.

³¹ Smith, ‘Performance and Negotiations’; and Zoeller, ‘Learning How to Live’.

³² Dorsch and Paskevich, ‘Stressful Experiences among Six’; Gilbert, Trudel, and Bloom, ‘Intramural Ice Hockey’; Rainey, ‘Sources of Stress’; Rainey and Hardy, ‘Ratings of Stress by Rugby’; and Stewart and Ellery, ‘Amount of Psychological Stress.

³³ Mascarenhas, Collins, and Mortimer, ‘Art of Reason’.

³⁴ Burke, Joyner, and Pim, ‘Exploratory Investigation’; Dennis, Carron, and Loughead, ‘Relationship between Game’; Gilbert, Trudel, and Bloom, ‘Intramural Ice Hockey’; Helsen and Bultynck, ‘Physical and Perceptual’; Jones, Paull, and Erskine, ‘Impact of a Team's’; Lane et al., ‘Soccer Referee Decision’; Larsen and Goldstein, ‘Expertise and Accuracy’; Levitt and Tockman, ‘Impact of the Sideline’; Mohr and Larsen, ‘Ingroup Favouritism’; Nevill, Balmer, and Williams, ‘Influence of Crowd’; Proios and Doganis, ‘Experiences from Active’; Souchon et al., ‘Referees’ Decision Making’; and Sutter and Kocher, ‘Favortism of Agents’.

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³⁶ Larsen and Goldstein, ‘Expertise and Accuracy’; MacMahon and Ste-Marie, ‘Decision-Making by Experienced’; Nevill, Balmer, and Williams, ‘Influence of Crowd’; Ollis, MacPherson, and Collins, ‘Expertise and Talent Development’; Proios and Doganis, ‘Experiences from Active’; and Thu et al., ‘Keeping the Game Close’.

³⁷ Auweele et al., ‘Judging Bias in Synchronized’; Dennis, Carron, and Loughead, ‘Relationship between Game’; Gilbert, Trudel, and Bloom, ‘Intramural Ice Hockey’; Jones, Paull, and Erskine, ‘Impact of a Team's’; Lane et al., ‘Soccer Referee Decision’; Levitt and Tockman, ‘Impact of the Sideline’; Mohr and Larsen, ‘Ingroup Favouritism’; Nevill, Balmer, and Williams, ‘Influence of Crowd’; Ste-Marie and Lee, ‘Prior Processing Effects’; and Sutter and Kocher, ‘Favortism of Agents’.

³⁸ Helsen and Bultynck, ‘Physical and Perceptual’.

³⁹ Castagna, Abt and D'Ottavio, ‘Physiological Aspects of Soccer’.

⁴⁰ Wilkins, Petersen, and Quinney, ‘Time-Motion Analysis’.

⁴¹ Leicht, ‘Cardiovascular Stress’.

⁴² Blake, Sherry, and Gissane, ‘Survey of Referee Participation’.

⁴³ Kay and Gill, ‘Physical Demands of Elite Rugby League Referees: Part One’; Kay and Gill ‘Physical Demands of Elite Rugby League Referees: Part Two’; and Martin et al., ‘Activity Analysis of English’.

⁴⁴ Galanti et al., ‘Cardiovascular Profile’; Krustup et al., ‘Activity Profile and Physical’; Weston et al., ‘Relationship among Field’; and Weston et al, ‘Ageing and Physical Match’.

⁴⁵ Andersen, Engebretsen, and Bahr, ‘Rules Violations as a Cause’; Collins, Fields, and Comstock, ‘When the Rules’; Livingston and Forbes, ‘Rule Changes, Rule’, Livingston and Forbes, ‘Rule Modification’; Parayre, ‘Effect of Rules and Officiating’; and Watson and Rickwood, ‘Stewards of Ice Hockey’.

⁴⁶ Betts, Forbes, and Livingston, ‘Factors Contributing to Attrition’; Furst, ‘Career Contingencies’; and Livingston and Forbes, ‘Factors Contributing’.

⁴⁷ Dorsch and Paskevich, ‘Stressful Experiences among Six’; and Gilbert, Trudel, and Bloom, ‘Intramural Ice Hockey’.

⁴⁸ Levitt and Tockman, ‘Impact of the Sideline’.

⁴⁹ Bowker et al., 2009.

⁵⁰ Dorsch and Paskevich, ‘Stressful Experiences among Six’.

⁵¹ Gilbert, Trudel, and Bloom, ‘Intramural Ice Hockey’.

⁵² Levitt and Tockman, ‘Impact of the Sideline’.

⁵³ Bowker et al., 2009.

⁵⁴ Bowker et al., 2009, 311.

⁵⁵ Davis, Art of Sports Officiating.

⁵⁶ Topp, ‘His Call’.

⁵⁷ Collins and Rardin, ‘Of the People’.

⁵⁸ Rosenow, ‘Seeing the Whole Play’; Smith, ‘Getting Games’.

⁵⁹ Livingston and Forbes, ‘Factors Contributing’.

⁶⁰ Cuskelly, Hoye, and Evans, ‘Problems and Issues’.

⁶¹ Arehart, ‘What You Owe’.

⁶² Betts, Forbes, and Livingston, ‘Factors Contributing to Attrition’.

⁶³ Eisenberger et al. ‘Perceived Organizational Support’.

⁶⁴ Ibid.

⁶⁵ Allen, Shore, and Griffeth, ‘Role of Perceived’; Eder and Eisenberger, ‘Perceived Organizational Support’; and Wayne et al., ‘Role of Fair Treatment.

⁶⁶ Inglis, Danylchuk, and Pastore, ‘Understanding Retention Factors’, and Stier, ‘Administration: Success?’

⁶⁷ Betts, Forbes, and Livingston, ‘Factors Contributing to Attrition’; and Livingston and Forbes, ‘Factors Contributing’.

⁶⁸ Trudel, Cote, and Sylvestre, ‘Systematic Observation of Ice Hockey’.

⁶⁹ Collins, Fields, and Comstock, ‘When the Rules’.

⁷⁰ Simon, ‘Go Get ‘Em!’

⁷¹ Dorsch and Paskevich, ‘Stressful Experiences among Six’.

⁷² Bowker et al., 2009.

⁷³ Eisenberger et al. ‘Perceived Organizational Support’.