Abstract
While gendered participation in sport is widely researched, less is known about the culture of women in leadership roles at recreational level sporting clubs. Women are not traditionally associated with leadership roles in sport and the culture of sport is often a space where males are in positions of power. This manuscript explores the experiences of women from two mixed-gendered and one female-only recreational level field hockey clubs in Melbourne, Australia, and examines the gendered leadership (specifically male dominance), at these hockey clubs. The principal aim of this study is to examine (using Connell's theory of gender relations, which focuses on gender imbalances of power) the differences in the level of involvement of women in leadership roles between mixed-gendered and single-gendered hockey clubs, the culture of patriarchal power at play at all three hockey clubs and how such power affected the opportunities for women in leadership roles.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge Dr Caroline Symons from Victoria University who has provided guidance and support for a long period of time, particularly through the PhD process, and thank the participants in this research who contributed their time and made me feel part of the hockey community.
Notes
5. This paper forms part of a larger PhD thesis studied through Victoria University in Melbourne, Australia, that focused on the experiences of women from three field hockey clubs in Melbourne. For the purposes of this paper, ‘hockey’ refers to field hockey unless otherwise stated. See CitationLitchfield, Sexual Diversity.
6. While the data from this manuscript come from the experiences of the female participants in 2006, a check of the websites for each hockey club in 2013 reveals that very little has changed with the gendered roles at each of these hockey clubs. In fact, the two mixed-gendered hockey clubs had less female involvement in executive and leadership roles in 2013 compared to 2006.
16. While outside the scope of this particular manuscript, there is a plethora of work around males, power and sexuality.
43. For a detailed discussion on labour, power and cathexis, please see CitationConnell, Gender and Power.
48. All club and participant names in this study are pseudonyms.
57. Interview with Laura, 23 years.
58. Personal communication, June 23, 2006.
59.CitationCoakley et al., 256–7; CitationHargreaves, Heroines of Sport, 3–7; CitationSymons et al., Come Out to Play, 42, 53–5; CitationSundstrom et al., ‘Play – But Don't Stay’, 110–5; and CitationStell, Half the Race, viii.
60. Interview with Laura, 23 years.
62. Interview with Hannah, 22 years.
63. Interview with Nat, 26 years.
64. Interview with Hannah, 22 years.
66. Interview with Amanda, 20 years.
67. In 2006 the club consisted of 24 teams. There were five women's teams, five men's teams, two women's veteran's teams, two male veterans teams, four junior girls teams, fours junior boys teams and two mixed juniors teams. This configuration meant that the distribution of male and female members at the club was fairly even during this season.
68. Interview with Steph, 34 years.
69. Ibid. Incidentally Steph was unable to locate and provide evidence of a ‘behavioural management code of conduct’.
71. Interview with Dawn, 49 years.
74. Interview with Claire, 40 years.
75. Interview with Summer, 36 years.
76. Interview with Cassandra, 52 years.
77. Interview with Laura, 23 years.
81. As the club was an all women's club, the other Executive Committee members were also women. However, these women were not involved in the research.
82. This is evidenced by the lack of females in executive committee roles at various hockey clubs in Victoria. This information was gained through weblinks on the Hockey Victoria and Hockey Australia websites.
Lenskyj, Helen Jefferson. Out on the Field: Gender, Sport and Sexualities. Ontario: Women's Press, 2003. Whisenant, Warren A. ‘Sustaining Male Dominance in Interscholastic Athletics: A Case of Homologous Reproduction … or Not?’ Sex Roles58 (2008): 768–75. Griffin, Pat. Strong Women, Deep Closets: Lesbians and Homophobia in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998. Hargreaves, Jennifer. Heroines of Sport: The Politics of Difference and Identity. London: Routledge, 2000. English, Jane. ‘Sex Equality in Sports’. Philosophy and Public Affairs7, no. 3 (1978): 269–77. Choi, Priscilla. Femininity and the Physically Active Woman. London: Routledge, 2000. Hargreaves, Jennifer. Heroines of Sport: The Politics of Difference and Identity. London: Routledge, 2000. Litchfield, Chelsea. ‘Sexual Diversity: Inclusiveness in Women's Club Level Sport’. Doctoral diss., Victoria University, Melbourne, 2012. Hannagan, Rebecca J. ‘Gendered Political Behavior: A Darwinian Feminist Approach’. Sex Roles59 (2008): 465–75. Paechter, Carrie. ‘Masculine Femininities/Feminine Masculinities: Power, Identities and Gender’. Gender and Education18, no. 3 (2006): 253–63. Connell, Raewyn W., and James W.Messerschmidt. ‘Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept’. Gender & Society19, no. 6 (2005): 829–59. Connell, Raewyn W.Masculinities. 2nd ed.Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, 2005. Crosset, Todd W.Outsiders in the Clubhouse – The World of Women's Professional Golf. New York: State University of New York Press, 1995. Choi, Priscilla. Femininity and the Physically Active Woman. London: Routledge, 2000. Lenskyj, Helen. ‘Sexuality and Femininity in Sport Contexts: Issues and Alternatives’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues18 (1994): 256–376. Krane, Vicki. ‘Challenging Hegemonic Femininity’. Colloquium presented at the 14th Annual Conference of the Association of the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, Banff, Canada, September, 1999. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Connell, Raewyn W.Gender and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Connell, Raewyn W.Gender and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987. Young, Kevin, and PhilipWhite. ‘Researching Sports Injury: Reconstructing Dangerous Masculinities’. In Masculinities, Gender Relations and Sport, ed. JimMcKay, Michael. A.Messner, and DonSabo, 108–26. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000. Connell, Raewyn W.Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Messner, Michael A., Mary C.Duncan, and CherylCooky. ‘Silence, Sports Bras and Wrestling Porn – Women in Televised Sports News and Highlights Shows’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues27, no. 1 (2003): 38–51. Phillips, Murray. An Illusionary Image: A Report on the Media Coverage and Portrayal of Women's Sport in Australia 1996. Women and Sport Unit, Australian Sports CommissionCanberra: Goanna Print, 1997. Rowe, David. Sport, Culture and the Media. Berkshire: Open University Press, 2004. Ely, Robin J., and Debra E.Meyerson. ‘Theories of Gender in Organizations: A New Approach to Organizational Analysis and Change’. Research in Organizational Behaviour22 (2000): 103–51. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Sibson, Ruth. ‘“I Was Banging My Head against a Brick Wall”: Exclusionary Power and the Gendering of Sport Organisations’. Journal of Sport Management24 (2010): 379–99. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Craig, Lyn, and PoojaSawrikar. ‘Work and Family: How Does the (Gender) Balance Change as Children Grow?’ Gender, Work and Organization16, no. 6 (2009): 684–709. Knoppers, Annelies, and AntonAnthonissen. ‘Gendered Managerial Discourses in Sport Organisations: Multiplicity and Complexity’. Sex Roles58 (2008): 93–103. Shaw, Sally, and LarenaHoeber. ‘A Strong Man Is Direct and a Direct Woman Is a Bitch: Gendered Discourses and Their Influence on Employment Roles in Sport Organizations’. Journal of Sport Management17 (2003): 347–75. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Sundstrom, Leonora J., DarylMarchant, and CarolineSymons. ‘Play – But Don't Stay: Women Leaders in Australian Sport’. In Sport, Culture and Society: Approaches, Methods and Perspectives, ed. MichaelBurke, ClaireHanlon, and CarlThomen, 107–26. Hawthorn: Maribyrnong Press, 2011. Sibson, Ruth. ‘“I Was Banging My Head against a Brick Wall”: Exclusionary Power and the Gendering of Sport Organisations’. Journal of Sport Management24 (2010): 379–99. Claringbould, Inge, and AnneliesKnoppers. ‘Finding a “Normal” Woman: Selection Processes for Board Membership’. Sex Roles56 (2007): 495–507. Pfister, Gertrud, and SabineRadtke. ‘Sport, Women and Leadership: Results of a Project on Executives in German Sports Organisations’. European Journal of Sport Science9, no. 4 (2009): 229–43. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Connell, Raewyn W.Gender and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Connell, Raewyn W.Gender and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987. Patton, Michael. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. 3rd ed.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002. Ritchie, Jane, and JaneLewis. Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers. London: Sage, 2003. Minichiello, Victor, RosalieAroni, EricTimewell, and LorisAlexander. In-depth Interviewing – Principles, Techniques, Analysis. 2nd ed.South Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia, 1995. Delamont, Sara. ‘Ethnography and Participant Observation’. In Qualitative Research Practice, ed. CliveSeale, GiampietroGobo, Jaber F.Gubrium, and DavidSilverman, 217–29. London: Sage, 2004. Freedman, Estelle B.No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. London: Ballantine Books, 2003. Hargreaves, Jennifer. Heroines of Sport: The Politics of Difference and Identity. London: Routledge, 2000. Stake, Robert E.Multiple Case Study Analysis. New York: Guildford Press, 2005. Litchfield, Chelsea, and CarolineSymons. ‘Hockey One, Hockey Two, Hockey Three: Participation, Inclusion and Policy at Three Community Hockey Clubs in Victoria’. In Sport, Culture and Society: Approaches, Methods and Perspectives, ed. BurkeMichael, ClaireHanlon, and CarlThomen, 127–42. Hawthorn: Maribyrnong Press, 2011. Yin, Robert K.Applications of Case Study Research. 2nd ed.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003. Schwartz-Shea, Peregrine. ‘Judging Quality – Evaluative Criteria and Epistemic Communities’. In Interpretation and Method: Empirical Research Methods and the Interpretive Turn, ed. DvoraYanow and PeregrineSchwartz-Shea, 89–113. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2006. Creswell, John W.Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998. Coakley, Jay, ChrisHallinan, PeterMewett, and SteveJackson. Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies in Australia and New Zealand. Sydney: McGraw-Hill, 2009. Hargreaves, Jennifer. Heroines of Sport: The Politics of Difference and Identity. London: Routledge, 2000. Symons, Caroline, MelissaSbaraglia, LynneHillier, and AnneMitchell. Come Out to Play: The Sports Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) People in Victoria. Melbourne: Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL) and the School of Sport and Exercise at Victoria University, 2010. Sundstrom, Leonora J., DarylMarchant, and CarolineSymons. ‘Play – But Don't Stay: Women Leaders in Australian Sport’. In Sport, Culture and Society: Approaches, Methods and Perspectives, ed. MichaelBurke, ClaireHanlon, and CarlThomen, 107–26. Hawthorn: Maribyrnong Press, 2011. Stell, Marion. Half the Race – A History of Australian Women in Sport. North Ryde: Angus and Robertson, 1991. Hargreaves, Jennifer. Heroines of Sport: The Politics of Difference and Identity. London: Routledge, 2000. Connell, Raewyn W.Gender and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Sundstrom, Leonora J., DarylMarchant, and CarolineSymons. ‘Play – But Don't Stay: Women Leaders in Australian Sport’. In Sport, Culture and Society: Approaches, Methods and Perspectives, ed. MichaelBurke, ClaireHanlon, and CarlThomen, 107–26. Hawthorn: Maribyrnong Press, 2011. Shaw, Sally, and LarenaHoeber. ‘A Strong Man Is Direct and a Direct Woman Is a Bitch: Gendered Discourses and Their Influence on Employment Roles in Sport Organizations’. Journal of Sport Management17 (2003): 347–75. Knoppers, Annelies, and AntonAnthonissen. ‘Gendered Managerial Discourses in Sport Organisations: Multiplicity and Complexity’. Sex Roles58 (2008): 93–103. Craig, Lyn, and PoojaSawrikar. ‘Work and Family: How Does the (Gender) Balance Change as Children Grow?’ Gender, Work and Organization16, no. 6 (2009): 684–709. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Knoppers, Annelies, and AntonAnthonissen. ‘Gendered Managerial Discourses in Sport Organisations: Multiplicity and Complexity’. Sex Roles58 (2008): 93–103. Craig, Lyn, and PoojaSawrikar. ‘Work and Family: How Does the (Gender) Balance Change as Children Grow?’ Gender, Work and Organization16, no. 6 (2009): 684–709. Knoppers, Annelies, and AntonAnthonissen. ‘Gendered Managerial Discourses in Sport Organisations: Multiplicity and Complexity’. Sex Roles58 (2008): 93–103. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Sartore, Melanie L., and George B.Cunningham. ‘Explaining the Under-Representation of Women in Leadership Positions of Sports Organizations: A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective’. Quest59 (2007): 244–65. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Connell, Raewyn W.Gender and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987. Connell, Raewyn. ‘Masculinities, Power and the Epidemic: Messages of Social Research’. Paper presented at the Politicising Masculinities: Beyond the Personal Symposium, Dakar2007. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997. Pringle, Richard. ‘Masculinities, Sport and Power – A Critical Comparison of Gramscian and Foucaldian Inspired Theoretical Tools’. Journal of Sport and Social Issues29, no. 3 (2005): 256–78. Young, Kevin, and PhilipWhite. ‘Researching Sports Injury: Reconstructing Dangerous Masculinities’. In Masculinities, Gender Relations and Sport, ed. JimMcKay, Michael. A.Messner, and DonSabo, 108–26. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000. McKay, Jim. Managing Gender – Affirmative Action and Organisational Power in Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand Sport. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997.