In vivo spectroscopy: optical fiber probes for clinical applications

Figures & data

Figure 1. (a) Conventional laboratory setup for Raman/Fluorescence spectroscopy, in fluorescence spectroscopy notch filter is not required, (b) Schematic diagram of portable fiber-optic-based spectrometer for In Situ/In Vivo applications, (c) Multi-fiber designs: Single incidence multi-collection arrangements:(i).6 collection around-1incidence, (ii) Double-shell collection; 18-around-1, (iii) Triple-shell collection; 36-around-1, adapted and redrawn from [47], (iv) Multi-incidence and multi-collection fiber system, (d) Schematic of a spectroscopy setup with coupled incidence-collection probe head, and (e) Portable laser-induced fluorescence system with the fiber-optic probe mounted on trolley use in the hospital clinic, and (f) Angled probes” and ‘Flat probes.’ Different angled tip probes along with the collection cone angle, adapted and redrawn from [48,49].

Figure 2. (a) The off configuration and dual filter probe, adapted and redrawn from [59], (b) compact small fiber optic probe to measure near infrared Raman spectra of cervical tissues in vivo adapted from [57], (c) Angled probe for biomedical application, (d) The configuration of fibers in the Raman probe and arrangement of probe tip adapted and redrawn from [56,58], and (e) The fiber-optic probe (made by Visionex) to excite the tissue of walls of blood vessel, with permission of [64], and (f) Optical fiber mini probe for Raman spectroscopy, with permission of [63].

Figure 3. (a) Fiber Raman probe with two arms: one for incidence and other for collection, adapted from [67,72]with permission from Optica Publishing Group, (b) Design of the Raman probe tip, longitudinal view at the left side and a cross sectional view of fiber filter interface at the right adapted from [56,71]with permission from Optica Publishing Group, (c) The distal end of the MicroRaman probe, adapted from [56,65]with permission from Optica Publishing Group, (d) The design of the MRP, where a lens with a hole size 0.58 mm at the center for incidence source mounted at the tip of probe to improve the efficiency of collection of the probe, adapted from [75]with permission from Optica Publishing Group, (e) A schematic of the fiber Raman system for lung cancer diagnostics, adapted and redrawn from [76,129], (f) Multimodal spectroscopy (MMS) system using the optical fiber spectral probe for simultaneous acquisition of three spectroscopy techniques such as Raman, fluorescence and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, adapted and redrawn from [79], (g) Cross section and longitudinal view of the probe, with permission of [73,79], and (h) integrated Raman spectroscopy along with trimodal (white-light reflectance, autofluorescence, and narrow-band Raman imaging methods), adapted from [74,81,129]with permission from Optica Publishing Group.

Figure 4. (a) The optical layout of the hand-held type Raman probe, adapted and redrawn from [73,85],, (b) Schematic of a beveled fiber optic confocal Raman endoscopic probe, adapted and redrawn from [90], (c) Schematic of fiber probe utilized for simultaneous FP/HW region where ball lens coupled with fiber Raman probe spectroscopy, adapted and redrawn from [91], (d) Spectropen the hand held fiber Raman probe, with permission of [95], (e)Multiple fiber probe with GRIN lens and needle bore, adapted and redrawn from [27,96], and (f) Scanning electron micrograph of the Kagome-lattice HC-PCF and experimental setup, adapted from [98]with permission from Optica Publishing Group.

Figure 5. (a) The commercial Raman probe (EmVision) includes inline filtering, adapted from [101] with permission from Optica Publishing Group, (b) Visually guided optical Raman probe, with permission of [102], (c) The fiber Raman probe with a small optical window fitted at the sheath cap to maintain constant measurement distance between Raman probe end and tissue surface, with permission of [103], (d) The biopsy needle probe for brain tumor, with permission of [105], (e) The fiber optic probe where laser light was coupled into the incidence fiber which is surrounded by 24 collection fibers with integrated filters at the distal end, adapted from [112] with permission of IOS press, (f) Design of distal end of the fiber probe to be made using ULAE technique, (g) The lenses after laser cutting and polishing of L2 module with permission of [113], and (h) Schematic setup of SERS fiber probe and the enhanced graphical image of fiber tip, with permission of [114].

Table 1. Different configuration of Raman probe designs for various applications.

Fiber optic Raman probe type	The basic probe design and configuration with fibers	Biomedical application/ sample type	Reference
High-axial resolution hollow waveguide probe	Hollow optical fiber of core 320 µm, with ball lens. Probe head diameter 640 µm	Stomach tissue of mice in vitro	[115]
Optical fiber probe for less Background	A silica cladding silica-core fiber (with 100 micron core NA = 0.22) for incidence and single silica-cladding-silica-core optical fiber (600 micron, NA = 0.22) used as collection fiber	Not available/ Benzoic acid, p-nitro phenol and methyl red	[116]
Visually guided Raman probe	Seven low-OH silica (300 µm) fiber surrounded by one low-OH silica (300 µm) fiber with visual camera, outer diameter is 7.1 mm stainless steel	In vivo cervix tissue	[102]
Hollow core optical waveguide	No conventional fiber was used, single hollow waveguide used for minimizing background	Not available/ CaCO3	[61,65]
Envivia by Visionex (commercial probe)	Inline filters in tip to reduce silica signal interference, 6 fibers surrounded by one single incidence fiber	Measurement of Raman spectra of different ex vivo tissues of rabbit such as muscle, brain, skin etc. In vivo skin of human body also recorded	[58,117]
fiber Raman probe for human cervix measuremet	Fiber optic probe bundle with filters (Probe size 12 mm in diameter)	In vivo Raman spectra measurement of normal and precancerous cervical tissue	[57]
Fiber optical Raman probe	2 mm ball lens mounted probe and diameter of probe is 2 mm	Malignant and normal breast tissue	[71]
MicroRaman fiber optic probe	MicroRaman Endoscope- microRaman probe of size 0.6 mm in diameter equipped with 2.5 mm endoscope	In vivo Raman rat esophagus and stomach tissue	[118]
Micro Raman fiber endoscope probe for esophageal track Raman measurement	Confocal probe used various lens for used as objective. The multimode fiber of 62.5 mm core as incidence and low OH, stepped index fiber of 105 μm core diameter (0.22NA)	Ex vivo implementation in Human Barrett’s esophagus for esophageal cancer	[88,119,120]
Commercial EMvision probe	Six collection fiber around one incidence fiber, Filter employed by coating the fiber tip and lenseing for beam steering, filters are arrnged inside the probe itself	Used in vivo during the brain cancers surgery. In vivo atherosclerotic plaque depositions of rabbit. , ex vivo study of tissue for lung cancer	[63,101,121–124]
Spatially offset Raman spectroscopy (SORS)probe with multiple offsets	Single 200 micron core fiber for incidence and collection individually with band pass and long pass filters at fiber tip respectively.	Human soft layer tissue for differntiation of tissue type, and for the ex- vivo detection of tumor of breast	[125,126]
Endoscopic probe with less depth of field	1.8-mm Raman fiber optic endoscopic probe, which can be placed at the biopsy channel of medical endoscopes, 32 Raman collection fibers of 200 micron core surrounded by one central laser delivery fiber of 200 micron core	In vivo Raman spectroscopic measuremet of gastric dysplasia tissue	[81,127]
Multicore fiber with integrated fiber	Potential to be semi-disposable Bragg gratings	Ex-vivo study of brain tissue	[128]

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