Evaluating the impact of a time orientation intervention on well-being during the COVID-19 lockdown: past, present or future?

Figures & data

Table 1. Participant demographics by intervention

			All		Nostalgia		Gratitude		BPS		Control		F	p
			(N= 261)		(n= 63)		(n= 67)		(n= 73)		(n= 58)
	Age (range: 18–63 years)	M (SD)	25.05	(9.43)	25.97	(10.23)	24.66	8.26	23.53	(8.39)	26.43	(10.84)	1.29	.279
	Relationship status												.14	.934
	Single	n (%)	116	(44.4)	30	(47.6)	28	(41.8)	31	(42.5)	27	(46.6)
	Dating one or more people	n (%)	15	(5.7)	5	(7.9)	4	(6.0)	5	(6.8)	1	(1.7)
	In a committed relationship	n (%)	100	(38.3)	19	(30.2)	26	(38.8)	31	(42.6)	24	(41.4)
	Engaged/married	n (%)	30	(11.5)	9	(14.3)	9	(13.4)	6	(8.2)	6	(10.3)
	Occupation												1.52	.210
	Student	n (%)	174	(66.7)	39	(61.9)	44	(65.7)	54	(74.0)	37	(64.9)
	Employed full-time	n (%)	52	(19.9)	14	(22.2)	17	(25.4)	7	(9.6)	14	(24.6)
	Employed part-time	n (%)	13	(5.0)	2	(3.2)	1	(1.5)	8	(11.0)	2	(3.5)
	Parent/carer/home-maker	n (%)	1	(0.4)	0	(0.0)	1	(1.5)	0	(0.0)	0	(0.0)
	Self-employed		7	(2.7)	1	(1.6)	3	(4.5)	2	(2.7)	1	(1.8)
	Retired	n (%)	3	(1.1)	1	1.6)	0	0.0)	0	(0.0)	2	(3.5)
	Unable to work	n (%)	1	(0.4)	0	0.0)	0	0.0)	1	(1.4)	0	(0.0)
	Unemployed	n (%)	8	(3.1)	5	7.9)	1	1.5)	1	(1.4)	1	(1.8)
	Other	n (%)	1	(0.4)	1	(1.6)	0	(0.0)	0	(0.0)	0	(0.0)
	Ethnicity												.60	.616
	Asian	n (%)	23	(8.8)	1	(1.6)	7	(10.4)	7	(9.6)	2	(3.4)
	Black	n (%)	11	(4.2)	3	(4.8)	4	(6.0)	2	(2.7)	8	(13.8)
	White	n (%)	207	(79.3)	54	(85.7)	50	(74.6)	57	(78.1)	46	(79.3)
	Mixed	n (%)	13	(5.0)	3	(4.8)	5	(7.5)	4	(5.5)	1	(1.7)
	Other	n (%)	7	(2.7)	2	(3.2)	1	(1.5)	3	(4.1)	1	(1.7)
	Country of residence												1.92	.126
	United Kingdom	n (%)	161	(61.7)	33	(52.4)	47	(70.1)	49	(67.1)	32	(55.2)
	Other	n (%)	100	(38.3)	30	(47.6)	20	(29.9)	24	(32.9)	26	(44.8)

Table 2. Participant lockdown and trait characteristics by intervention

		All		Nostalgia		Gratitude		BPS		Control		F	p
		(N= 261)		(n= 63)		(n= 67)		(n= 73)		(n= 58)
Lockdown days (range: 14–84 days)	M (SD)	39.22	(13.35)	38.32	(12.05)	38.74	13.47	39.59	14.30	40.25	13.52	.40	.867
Number of people living with (range: 0–9 people)	M (SD)	2.56	(1.35)	2.28	(1.24)	2.45	1.33	2.99	1.30	2.44	1.46	3.60	.014*
Number of times outside in the last 2 weeks?												.08	.969
Not at all	n (%)	49	(18.8)	10	(15.9)	14	20.9	14	19.2	11	19.0
Several times a week	n (%)	136	(52.1)	39	(61.9)	32	47.8	37	50.7	28	48.3
Once a day	n (%)	61	(23.4)	9	(14.3)	18	26.9	19	26.0	15	25.9
More than once a day	n (%)	15	(5.7)	5	(7.9)	3	4.5	3	4.1	4	6.9
Number of times outside in the last 2 weeks for exercise?												.25	.863
Not at all	n (%)	83	(31.8)	18	(28.6)	22	32.8	20	27.4	23	39.7
Several times a week	n (%)	108	(41.4)	30	(47.6)	26	38.8	33	45.2	19	32.8
Once a day	n (%)	66	(25.3)	13	(20.6)	19	28.4	19	26.0	15	25.9
More than once a day	n (%)	4	(1.5)	2	(3.2)	0	0.0	1	1.4	1	1.7
Number of times outside in the last 2 weeks for work?												.71	.547
Not at all	n (%)	231	(88.5)	56	(88.9)	58	86.6	64	87.7	53	91.4
Several times a week	n (%)	18	(6.9)	5	(7.9)	3	4.5	7	9.6	3	5.2
Once a day	n (%)	11	(4.2)	2	(3.2)	5	7.5	2	2.7	2	3.4
More than once a day	n (%)	1	(0.4)	0	(0.0)	1	1.5	0	0.0	0	0.0
Number of interactions (virtually or in person) with people you don’t live with												.11	.954
Not at all	n (%)	39	(14.9)	11	(17.5)	8	11.9	8	11.0	12	20.7
Several times a week	n (%)	146	(55.9)	34	(54.0)	38	56.7	48	65.8	26	44.8
Once a day	n (%)	49	(18.8)	10	(15.9)	15	22.4	11	15.1	13	22.4
More than once a day	n (%)	27	(10.3)	8	(12.7)	6	9.0	6	8.2	7	12.1
Trait measures
Anxiety	M (SD)	3.91	(1.17)	3.93	(0.95)	3.68	1.21	4.12	1.11	3.86	1.38	1.68	.172
Avoidance	M (SD)	3.48	(1.05)	3.60	(1.10)	3.44	0.91	3.37	1.11	3.53	1.07	.63	.597
Trait emotion regulation	M (SD)	2.51	(0.71)	2.55	(0.75)	2.43	0.66	2.55	0.75	2.53	0.69	.42	.743

Table 3. Manipulation checks by intervention

		All (N = 261)		Nostalgia (1) (n = 63)		Gratitude (2) (n = 67)		BPS (3) (n = 73)		Control (4) (n = 58)		Main effect of intervention			Post hoc
	M		SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	F (3, 257)	p	ηp^2
State nostalgia		3.82	1.48	5.12	0.92	3.67	1.35	3.21	1.37	3.34	1.42	29.99	.000	.26	1 > 2, 3, 4*** d = 1.07, d = 1.39, d = 1.25
State gratefulness		4.52	1.19	4.59	1.19	5.16	0.77	4.26	1.21	4.02	1.23	12.72	.000	.13	1, 2 > 4* d= 0.46, d = 0.93 2 > 3*** d = 0.74
State optimism		4.14	1.19	3.95	1.24	4.45	0.90	4.38	1.22	3.68	1.24	6.30	.000	.07	2 > 4** d = 0.62 3 > 4** d = 0.56

*p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001.

Table 4. Well-being and affect by intervention

	All (N = 261)		Nostalgia (1) (n = 63)		Gratitude (2) (n = 67)		BPS (3) (n = 73)		Control (4) (n = 58)		Main effect of intervention			Post hoc
	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	F(1, 236)	p	ηp^2
Social connectedness	4.51	1.09	4.25	1.07	4.69	1.03	4.69	1.05	4.40	1.12	2.65	.049	.03	2, 3 > 1* d = 0.41, d = 0.41
Self-regard	4.09	1.17	3.95	1.05	4.16	1.08	4.15	1.23	4.13	1.23	0.84	.471	.01
Self-continuity	4.06	1.08	4.21	1.07	3.99	0.98	4.14	0.98	3.88	1.26	1.87	.136	.02
Meaning	4.55	1.17	4.44	1.14	4.64	1.15	4.64	1.20	4.36	1.23	1.05	.373	.01
Optimism	4.07	1.23	3.85	1.29	4.14	1.12	4.25	1.24	4.03	1.24	1.68	.171	.02
Total well-being	4.26	0.96	4.14	0.95	4.33	0.91	4.37	0.95	4.16	1.01	1.44	.232	.02
Positive affect	2.68	0.87	2.46	0.86	2.64	0.86	2.81	0.88	2.76	0.89	2.64	.050	.03	3 > 1**, d = 0.40
Negative affect	1.80	0.80	1.82	0.79	1.70	0.66	2.00	0.96	1.67	0.73	1.51	.213	.02

*p< 0.05, **p< 0.01.

Table 5. Predictors of well-being, positive affect and negative affect under lockdown

	Total well-being	Positive affect	Negative affect
Variable	β	β	β
Step 1: Intervention	−.01	.13	.01
Step 2: Intervention	−.01	.12	−.01
Anxiety	−.17*	−.01	.07
Avoidance	−.28***	−.05	.09
Trait emotion regulation	−.20*	−.17	.32***
Age	.03	.17*	−.07
Relationship status	.04	.07	.03
Lockdown days	.06	.14*	.11
Number of people you live with	.05	.02	−.02
Number of times outside	−.03	−.02	−.06
Number of times outside for exercise	.01	.06	−.07
Number of times outside for work	.01	.07	−.03
Number of interactions	.12*	−.02	−.06

Values are standardised regression β-coefficients. *p< 0.05, ***p< 0.001.

Data availability

The data that supports the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, AD, upon reasonable request.