HIV non-testing, perpetration of violence against women, and sexual risk-behaviour: A cross-sectional analysis of South African peri-urban township men

Figures & data

Table 4. Estimated effects of socio-demographics, relationship characteristics, inequitable masculinities and sexual risk behaviours on HIV testing among men.

	Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	Model 1: Socio-demographics n = 1484	Model 2: Masculinities n = 1458	Model 3: Gendered risk n = 1453
		Adjusted OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (95% CI)
Socio-demographics
Age (years) ≥30 years	0.84 (0.68–1.05)	0.81 (0.64–1.01)	0.78 (0.62–0.99)*	0.77 (0.60–0.99)*
Highest level of school education	1.40 (1.12–1.75)**	1.41 (1.12–1.78)**	1.38 (1.09–1.75)**	1.28 (1.00–1.64)*
Migrated from outside province	1.11 (0.86–1.41)	–	–	–
More than 6 years living in township	0.82 (0.64–1.06)	–	–	–
Worked ever in past 12 months	1.26 (0.98–1.62)	1.20 (0.93–1.56)	1.19 (0.92–1.55)	1.50 (0.90–1.59)
Food secure	1.40 (1.11–1.74)**	1.45 (1.15–1.81)**	1.49 (1.18–1.88)**	1.50 (1.17–1.91)**
Relationship characteristics
Partnered	1.80 (1.21–2.30)**	1.71 (1.23–2.39)**	1.80 (1.28–2.53)**	1.95 (1.33–2.86)**
Length of relationship >5 years	1.11 (0.87–1.42)	–	–	–
Inequitable masculinities
Physical and/ sexual VAW in the past year	0.77 (0.61–0.97)*	–	0.73 (0.58–0.93)**	0.80 (0.61–1.04)
Gender inequitable beliefs	0.80 (0.64–1.01)	–	0.86 (0.68–1.09)	0.93 (0.72–1.21)
Overpowering in relationships	1.91 (0.71–1.16)	–	–	–
Sexual risk behaviors
Inconsistent condom use in the past year	0.61 (0.47–0.80)***	–	–	0.64 (0.48–0.85)**
Multiple partners in the last 12 months	0.78 (0.61–0.99)*	–	–	0.87 (0.67–1.13)
Sex worker use in the last 12 months	0.67 (0.48–0.93)*	–	–	–
Problem drinking in the past 12 months	0.73 (0.57–0.93)*	–	–	0.72 (0.55–0.94)**

Notes: OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval.

*p ≤ 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Table 1. Socio-demographics, relationship characteristics and inequitable masculinities of participants.

Characteristic	Endline, n = 1508
	Number (%)
Age
Mean age in years ± SD	29.4 ± 5.8 (IQR = 18–42)
Ethnicity
Other racial/ethnic groups	21 (1.4)
Black/African	1478 (98.6)
Highest school level education
Secondary or less	876 (57.5)
Completed high school/Matriculated	641 (42.5)
Migrancy in Gauteng Province
Non-migrant	659 (27.6)
Migrant	1733 (72.4)
Length of stay in peri-urban area
Mean stay length in years ± SD	11.3 ± 6.0 (IQR = 1–36)
Employment in the past 12 months
Never worked	359 (24.0)
Worked	1137 (76.0)
Food security in the past month
Mean score ± SD	5.9 ± 2.5 (IQR = 3–12)
Less secure (score ≤6)	833 (55.6)
More secure (score >6)	665 (44.4)
Relationship status
Single	176 (11.7)
Partnered	1332 (88.3)
Length of relationship with main partner
Mean relationship length in years ± SD	5.4 ± 4.3 (IQR = 0–15)
IPV perpetration in the past year
Never	1105 (73.6)
Ever	397 (26.4)
Rape of a non-partner in the past 12 months
Mean ± SD	0.9 ± 2.3 (IQR = 0-15)
Never	1195 (79.5)
Ever	309 (20.5)
Physical and or sexual VAW in the last 12 months
Never	1010 (67.1)
Ever	494 (32.9)
Sexual Relationship Power Scale
Mean relationship control score ± SD	19.4 ± 5.2 (IQR = 9–36)
Non-controlling	1080 (72.6)
Controlling	408 (27.4)
Gender Belief Scale
Mean gender belief score ± SD	21.9 ± 6.3 (IQR = 11–44)
Equitable	989 (66.9)
Inequitable	490 (33.1)

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of sexual risk behaviours among all men.

Characteristic	Endline, n = 1508
	Number (%)
Consistent condoms use in the last 12 months
Always	1012 (72.8)
Non-consistent	378 (27.2)
Sex with a sex worker in the past 12 months
Never	663 (77.5)
Ever	192 (22.5)
Multiple sexual partners in the past year (≥3)	3.2 ± 2.7 (range = 0–9)
Never	525 (38.0)
Ever	856 (62.0)
Problem drinking in the past year (AUDIT ≥8)
Mean score ± SD	5.9 ± SD 6.6 (IQR = 0–36)
Non-problem drinking (score ≤8)	1072 (72.5)
Problem drinking (score >8)	406 (27.5)

Note: AUDIT: Alcohol use disorders identification tool.

Table 3. Bivariate association between socio-demographics, relationship characteristics, hegemonic masculinities, risky sexual behaviours and HIV testing among men.

Characteristic	HIV testing		p-Value
	Not tested n = 475	Tested n = 1027
	Mean or %	Mean or %	(χ^2 or sign rank test)
Socio-demographics
Age (years)	29.6	29.3	0.40
Highest level of school education	36.8%	45.0%	0.03
Migrated from outside province,	70.0%	72.1%	0.42
Time living in community (years)	11.7	11.2	0.13
Worked in past 12 months	73.1%	77.4%	0.07
Food secure	38.9%	46.9%	<0.01
Relationship characteristics
Partnered	84.4%	90.1%	<0.01
Length of relationship	5.3	5.4	1.00
Inequitable masculinities
Physical and/ sexual VAW in the past year	36.9%	31.1%	0.03
Sexual Relationship Power Scale	2.2	2.2	0.38
Gender Beliefs Scale	2.0	2.0	0.07
Sexual risk behaviours
Consistent condom use (always)	90 (20.8%)	287 (30.1)	<0.01
Sex with a sex worker in the past year	79 (27.3%)	113 (20.1)	0.02
Multiple partners (≥3) in the past year	282 (65.9%)	570 (60.1%)	0.04
Problem drinking (AUDIT ≥8)	147 (32.0%)	259 (25.5%)	0.01

Note: Bold indicates significant variables.