Glacial geomorphology of the former Patagonian Ice Sheet (44–46 °S)

Figures & data

Figure 1. Continental and regional setting of valleys mapped in this study. (b) Regional setting of mapped valleys, including the location of the main outlet glaciers: P: Río Pico, Ca: Río Caceres, C: Río Cisnes, PF: Lago Plata-Fontana, T: El Toqui, Ñ: Lago Coyt/Río Ñirehuao, SP: Simpson/Paso Coyhaique, and B: Balmaceda. LGC/BA: Lago General Carrera-Buenos Aires. Arrows represent main ice-flow directions. (a) Southern South America, including the mapped area. NPI: Northern Patagonian Icefield; SPI: Southern Patagonian Icefield; CDI: Cordillera Darwin Icefield. Ice extent at 35 ka is also presented and was extracted from PATICE (Davies et al., 2020). Modern ice extent from RGI v. 6.0, region 17 (Arendt et al., 2017).

Figure 2. The location of published mapping between 44° and 46°S. Mapping type has been included: field or remotely sensed, as well as mapping extent. Where detailed maps or georeferenced locations were not available (Table 1), mapping extent has been estimated according to the data that has been described in each publication (legend: previous mapping). Areas that were field verified in this study have also been included (grey boxes). Modern ice extent from RGI v. 6.0, region 17 (Arendt et al., 2017). LGC/BA: Lago General Carrera-Buenos Aires.

Table 1. Relevant glacial geomorphological landforms and glacier inventories presented in studies from Figure 2, described using the terminology presented in this paper.

Reference	Mapping Area Coverage	Mapping relevant to the new inventory
Caldenius (1932)^a	Broad-scale	Moraine complexes or deposits and glaciolacustrine sediments.
Ramos (1981)	Lago Plata-Fontana	Moraine complexes or deposits and proglacial outwash plains.
Ploszkiewicz (1987)	East of the Río Cisnes valley	Proglacial outwash plains.
Beltramone (1991)	Central Simpson/Paso Coyhaique	Moraine complexes or deposits, moraine ridges, and glaciolacustrine sediments.
Dal Molin (1998)	Lago Coyt/Río Ñirehuao, Simpson/Paso Coyhaique, and Balmaceda	Moraine complexes or deposits, glaciolacustrine sediments, and proglacial outwash plains.
Dal Molin and González Díaz (2002)	Lago Coyt/Río Ñirehuao, Simpson/Paso Coyhaique, and Balmaceda	Moraine ridges, proglacial outwash plains, and proglacial outwash terraces.
Escosteguy et al. (2003)	Eastern side of Lago Buenos Aires	Moraine complexes or deposits, glaciolacustrine sediments, and proglacial outwash plains.
Singer et al. (2004); Kaplan et al. (2004, 2005)	Eastern side of Lago Buenos Aires	Moraine complexes or deposits and glaciolacustrine sediments.
Glasser and Jansson (2005)	Lago Coyt/Río Ñirehuao, Balmaceda and Andean Cordillera	Moraine ridges, glacially scoured bedrock, glacial lineations, and meltwater channels.
Douglass et al. (2006)	Eastern side of Lago Buenos Aires	Moraine complexes or deposits, proglacial outwash plains, and glaciolacustrine sediments.
Glasser and Jansson (2008)	Broad-scale	Moraine ridges, trimlines, meltwater channels, proglacial outwash plains, glacial lineations, palaeolake shorelines, and cirques.
Glasser et al. (2009)	Western margins of Lago Buenos Aires, inside the Anean Cordillera	Moraine ridges, trimlines, glacially scoured bedrock, cirques, glacial lineations, meltwater channels, proglacial outwash plains.
Haller et al. (2010)	Lago Palena/General Vintter	Moraine complexes or deposits and moraine ridges.
Mardones et al. (2011)	Western edge of Simpson/Paso Coyahique, Balmaceda, and inside the Andean Cordillera	Cirques, moraine ridges, moraine complexes or deposits, and palaeolake shorelines.
Beraza & Vilas (1989) cited in: Rabassa et al. (2011)^a	Río Pico	Moraine complexes or deposits.
Martínez (2002) and Martínez et al. (2009) cited in: Martínez et al. (2011)^a	Lago Palena/General Vintter	Moraine complexes or deposits and moraine ridges.
Lapido (2000) cited in: Rabassa et al. (2011)^a	Río Pico	Moraine complexes or deposits and proglacial outwash terraces.
Davies and Glasser (2012)	Andean Cordillera	Moraine ridges, trimlines, and cirques.
Glasser et al. (2012)	Western edge of Lago Buenos Aires, inside the Andean Cordillera	Moraine ridges, trimlines, meltwater channels, proglacial outwash plains, palaeolake shorelines, glacial lineations, and cirques.
Miranda et al. (2013)^a	Simpson/Paso Coyahique and Balmaceda	Moraine complexes or deposits and moraine ridges.
Miranda (2015)^a	Simpson/Paso Coyahique and Balmaceda	Moraine ridges.
Smedley et al. (2016)	Eastern side of Lago Buenos Aires	Moraine ridges, palaeochannels, palaeolake shorelines, glaciolacustrine sediments, and proglacial outwash plains.
Bendle et al. (2017b)	Lago Buenos Aires	Moraine complexes or deposits, moraine ridges, trimlines, glacial lineations, glaciolacustrine sediments, perched deltas, palaeolake shorelines, proglacial outwash plains, catastrophic flood landforms, and meltwater channels.
García et al. (2019)	Río Cisnes	Moraine complexes or deposits, moraine ridges, palaeolake shorelines, perched deltas, and proglacial outwash plains.
Taylor (2019)	Eastern side of Balmaceda	Moraine complexes or deposits, moraine ridges, glacial lineations, meltwater channels, proglacial outwash plains, palaeolake shorelines, glaciolacustrine sediments, and perched deltas.
Vilanova et al. (2019)^a	Simpson/Paso Coyahique and Balmaceda	Moraine ridges.
Davies et al. (2020)	Broad-scale	Moraine ridges, trimlines, glacial lineations, meltwater channels, palaeolake shorelines, perched deltas, proglacial outwash plains, cols, and cirques.
Leger et al. (2020)	Lago Palena/General Vintter	Moraine complexes or deposits, moraine ridges, kettle holes, proglacial outwash plains, meltwater channels, catastrophic flood landforms, palaeolake shorelines, perched deltas, glaciolacustrine sediments, glacial lineations, glacially scoured bedrock, and cirques.
Moreno et al. (2021)	Northern tip of Lago Rosselot, inside the Andean Cordillera	Moraine complexes or deposits and moraine ridges.

^a Indicates studies where detailed maps have not been available, where the original publication was not accessible, or where landforms have been described, but precise mapping locations are unknown and cannot be fully reviewed.

Figure 3. Broad geomorphological context of mapped valleys, including key moraine complexes. It is likely that the stratigraphically oldest moraine complexes span multiple glacial advances. Moraine complexes were mostly identified from remote mapping and should be field verified. Outlet glaciers: P: Río Pico, Ca: Río Caceres, C: Río Cisnes, PF: Lago Plata-Fontana, T: El Toqui, Ñ: Lago Coyt/Río Ñirehuao, SP: Simpson/Paso Coyhaique, and B: Balmaceda. Location and extent of maps presented in Figures 4–6 have also been included (black boxes) and photos of glaciolacustrine sediments (red dots). Modern ice extent from RGI v. 6.0, region 17 (Arendt et al., 2017).

Figure 4. Ice-marginal landforms within the main outlet valleys and the Andean Cordillera. Raw satellite images (left) and mapped geomorphology (right). (a) Satellite image of central-northern sector of the Río Pico valley, including the location of (g). (b) Mapped landforms, including the PIC 6 moraine and an associated proglacial outwash plain. (c) Satellite image of a morainal bank, which is the lateral margin of the PIC 6 moraine, and a small isolated palaeolake basin in the northern Río Pico valley. (d) Mapped landforms surrounding the PIC 6 morainal bank, which is adjacent to ice-contact fans, and multiple, stepped, palaeolake shorelines. (e) Satellite image of the area southeast of the Queulat ice cap. (f) Mapped moraines and trimlines associated with the stratigraphically youngest glacier advances in the Andean Cordillera. (g) Ice-proximal view of the PIC 6 moraine in the field overlooking older moraines and terminating into a proglacial outwash plain. Satellite images are from ESRI™ DigitalGlobe World Imagery via ArcGIS Pro. Figure panel locations are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 5. Subglacial and glaciolacustrine landforms and sediments. (a) Satellite image of glacial lineations in the Simpson/Paso Coyhaique valley. (b) Mapped glacial lineations in the Simpson/Paso Coyhaique valley, dissected by proglacial outwash plains. Glacial lineations are aligned in a west-east and southwest-northeast direction, and adjacent to moraine complexes or deposits. (c) Satellite image of recently deglaciated ice cap south of Volcán Macá. (d) Flutes mapped within the Andean Cordillera which demonstrate multiple, diverging, local ice-flow directions. (e) Satellite image of the CIS 4 moraine, Río Cisnes valley. (f) Short-lived, narrow, palaeolake shorelines embedded on the CIS 4 moraine. (g) Laminated glaciolacustrine sediments located in the centre of the Río Pico palaeolake basin. (h) Glaciolacustrine sediments dissected by a tephra layer (cf. Stern et al., 2015) in the Río Cisnes valley.

Figure 6. Examples of glaciofluvial landforms in the study area. (a) Location of catastrophic flood landforms and direction of final palaeolake drainage in the Río Cisnes valley. (b) Mapped catastrophic flood landforms along the banks of the modern Río Cisnes, adjacent to the CIS 5 moraine. Includes the location of (c). (c) Catastrophic flood landform in the foreground, adjacent to the CIS 5 moraine. (d) Location and ice-flow direction at Lago La Paloma, the site of a tributary glacier of the main Balmaceda valley. (e) Mapping of the La Paloma glacier, including moraine ridges and proglacial outwash terraces. Proglacial outwash terraces indicate that glaciofluvial drainage from the La Paloma glacier was directed towards the main Balmaceda valley.

Table 2 . Rationale, uncertainties, and identification criteria for ice-marginal, subglacial, glaciolacustrine, glaciofluvial, and non-glacial landforms mapped between 44 – 46°S. Total mapped landform numbers and/or areas are provided where applicable. Landform occurrence (✘) within the study region: P: Río Pico outlet glacier, Ca: Río Caceres outlet glacier, C: Río Cisnes outlet glacier, PF: Lago Plata-Fontana outlet glacier, T: El Toqui outlet glacier Ñ: Lago Coyt/Río Ñirehuao outlet glacier, SP: Simpson/Paso Coyhaique outlet glacier, B: Balmaceda outlet glacier, and A: landforms mapped within the Andean Cordillera. Identification criteria were modelled after Bendle et al. (2017b), Martin et al. (2019), and Leger et al. (2020): criteria were then modified and updated for the study area.

Landform	Rationale	Uncertainties	Identification criteria	Number of observations	Area (km^2)	Landform occurrence
						P	Ca	C	PF	T	Ñ	SP	B	A
Ice-marginal landforms
Moraine complexes or deposits	Indicates lateral/terminal extent of a glacier. Representative of prolonged glacier stillstands or (re-)advances.	It can be difficult to differentiate between consecutive glacial advances from satellite imagery alone. May be confused with landslides or slumps when plastered onto the valley sides.	In satellite imagery, elongate ridges or crests found in close proximity. Older deposits may possess gently undulating mounds, with no distinct moraine ridges and are sometimes heavily eroded. Can often be traced for long distances and may be found adjacent to proglacial outwash plains.	–	1487	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	–
Moraine ridges	Indicates glacier lateral or terminal extent at the time of deposition. Moraine size may inform on the relative longevity of the ice-margin position.	Moraines lacking sharp or significant relief may be difficult to detect in satellite imagery. Small moraine ridges associated with younger glacial advances in the Andean Cordillera usually require mapping at a high spatial resolution (≤1:10,000).	In satellite imagery, elongate ridges or crests with positive relief. Often steeply sloping or gently sloping on one side. May be flat-topped in some cases. Likely to possess dark-light shading from relief. In the field, likely to also be topped with boulders and cobbles.	11307	–	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘
Morainal banks	Indicative of a glacier that was calving into an ice-contact lake.	In satellite imagery, may be easily overlooked and confused with other moraine ridges when palaeolake evidence is not apparent.	In satellite imagery, a rounded wedge of sediment that possesses a steep ice-distal slope, with a gently tapering ice-proximal slope. Found in close proximity to palaeolake shorelines or ice-contact fans.	1	5.9	✘	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
Trimlines	Indicative of recent ice extent (ice-marginal trimlines) or thickness (lateral trimlines).	When mapping remotely, trimlines may be difficult to distinguish from small, low-relief, latero-frontal moraines within the Andean Cordillera. Requires a high spatial resolution to map remotely (≤ 1:10,000).	Trimlines are found within the Andean Cordillera. In satellite imagery, trimlines possess an ovate morphology, or run horizontally with the valley walls, pointing down-valley. A distinct transition between glacially scoured bedrock, sediment, or low-lying vegetation and the developed treeline is apparent.	505	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	✘
Subglacial landforms
Cirques	Informs on origin of local ice-sources.	Identification may be hindered by presence of snow cover or vegetation in satellite imagery.	In satellite imagery, arcuate hollows with steep headwalls, found on mountaintops are interpreted as cirques. Cirques are mostly found inside the Andean Cordillera. May be located above small moraines or trimlines. May contain a lake.	1942	–	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘
Crag-and-Tails	Oriented parallel to the direction of local ice-flow.	Can be difficult to distinguish from bedrock outcrops or glacial lineations when using satellite imagery alone. Field verification is required to confirm landform interpretation.	In satellite imagery, crag-and-tails are oriented in the direction of local ice-flow. Ovate mounds which elongate and become pointed on their down-ice slope. Bedrock may protrude from their up-ice (stoss) end. In the field, a resistant bedrock core can be found on their stoss end. A gently tapering lee slope composed of glacial sediments is elongated in the direction of ice-flow. Usually plastered with faceted boulders and cobbles.	20	–	–	–	✘	–	–	–	–	–	–
Glacially scoured bedrock	May indicate former ice-flow direction, wet-based ice, or areas where ice was thick.	In satellite imagery, bedrock is often plastered with surficial sediments or interspersed with vegetation which may hinder identification.	In remote mapping, extensive areas of bedrock within former ice limits which appear smoothed. May appear streamlined in the direction of ice-flow. In the field, may additionally be found overlain with perched boulders or interspersed with subglacial diamict.	4725	195	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	–
Glacial lineations	Will signal the direction(s) of former ice-flow. May be indicative of fast-flowing or streaming ice.	May not be identifiable in highly vegetated areas. Could be confused with crag-and-tails or moraine ridges.	In satellite imagery, elongate ridges with sharp-to-gently tapering sides oriented in the direction of ice-flow. ≤2.5 km in length and ≤0.1 km in width, regionally. Often found aligned with moraine complexes or deposits.	257	–	✘	–	✘	–	–	✘	✘	✘	–
Flutes	Signal the direction(s) of local ice-flow. Indicates areas which were recently glacierised.	Flutes are only preserved near active or recently active glaciers. Requires high-resolution (≤ 1:10,000) mapping from satellite imagery to identify remotely.	Mapped remotely and found within the Andean Cordillera. Found down-slope of active glaciers or recently deglacierised areas. Elongate, thin, ridges of glacigenic sediment, oriented in the direction of ice-flow. Found in swarms.	2521	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	✘
Glaciolacustrine l andforms
Palaeolake shorelines	Indicative of palaeolake surface elevation, lake level longevity, and the lateral extent of the palaeolake.	Difficult to distinguish when not continuous in satellite images. May be confused with low-relief moraines. In the field, narrow shorelines with closely spaced steps are difficult to map individually.	In satellite imagery 1) elongate, flat-topped ridges which may be traced for significant distances. May possess a steep lake-marginal slope or be found in association with perched deltas or ice-contact fans. 2) Short-lived, discrete, palaeolake shorelines are found in sets, and possess narrow terracing and closely spaced steps. Both shorelines are identifiable by dark-light shading in satallite imagery. In the field, palaeolake shorelines may possess a flat or gently-undulating surface.	2121	–	✘	✘	✘	✘	–	✘	✘	✘	–
Perched deltas	Can be used to indicate a proglacial palaeolake level. May help to infer the lateral extent of a palaeolake.	May be misinterpreted as an alluvial fan in satellite imagery, particularly when the elevation change between the delta-top area and surrounding landscape is not sharp.	In satellite imagery, perched deltas possess a flat top, and sharp or gently sloping lake-marginal slope. Usually fan-shaped in plan view. Will be found pointing towards a lake or palaeolake basin, and may be associated with, or raised above, palaeolake shorelines. May preserve palaeochannels, gullies, or contain modern rivers.	91	50	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	–
Ice-contact fans	Indicative of ice-contact lake presence and surface elevation at the time of moraine deposition. May provide an approximate ice extent.	In satellite imagery, may be mistaken for proglacial outwash plains or perched deltas where topography is subdued or palaeolake/moraine evidence is not clear.	In satellite imagery, ice-contact fans possess a similar morphology to perched deltas. Additionally found on the ice-distal side of moraines and perched above the palaeolake basin. May preserve meltwater channels on their surface.	16	23	✘	✘	–	✘	–	–	–	✘	–
Glaciolacustrine sediments	Indicates the presence of a palaeolake. May provide further information on processes of glaciolacustrine sediment deposition.	Requires field or laboratory verification to assess model of glaciolacustrine sediment deposition. May be difficult to identify in heavily vegetated areas.	In the field, possess a laminated or homogenous matrix. Likely to be exposed where rivers or runoff have incised older glaciolacustrine sediments. At the macro-scale, laminated glaciolacustrine sediments contain moderate-to-well-sorted laminae comprised of clays, silts, and sands. In satellite imagery, usually appear beige or white in colour, and are located near a modern lake or within a palaeolake basin.	–	–	✘	–	✘	–	–	–	✘	✘	–
Palaeolake spillways (cols)	Indicative of palaeolake drainage outlet and direction of glaciofluvial drainage.	In satellite imagery, may be difficult to discern when landscape has been dissected by younger glaciofluvial drainage routes. May be mistaken for gullies.	By generating contours in GIS, and corresponding these with known palaeolake levels, drainage outlets may be identified at these levels. Will usually be marked by a large palaeochannel directed towards an area of lower relief.	5	–	✘	–	✘	–	–	✘	–	✘	–
Glaciofluvial landforms
Catastrophic flood landforms	Provides evidence for the occurrence of catastrophic floods. May also provide insight into the direction of flood drainage.	May be confused with river terraces in satellite imagery. Field verification is necessary for identification.	In satellite imagery, flat-topped landforms with steep scarp slopes which possess a similar morphology to river terraces. In the field, identifiable by presence of large boulders (≤3 m in height) which are located within and on top of a boulder bar.	12	–	–	–	✘	–	–	–	–	–	–
Proglacial outwash plains Adapted from Davies et al. (2020) PATICE shapefiles.	Indicative of meltwater drainage direction. May inform on ice-margin extent.	Older proglacial outwash plains may be difficult to distinguish where glaciofluvial drainage routes meet.	In satellite imagery, usually possess extensive networks of braided meltwater channels. Usually found on the ice-distal side of moraines and moraine complexes or deposits.	–	18144	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘
Proglacial outwash terraces	May indicate the relative longevity of glaciofluvial drainage routes.	May be confused with river terraces near modern drainage routes. Difficult to delineate the limits of multiple terraces without field verification.	In satellite imagery, found within areas of proglacial outwash plains. Terraces are raised above surrounding proglacial outwash plains, and possess a steep scarp slope identifiable through light-dark shading.	352	93	✘	✘	✘	✘	–	✘	✘	✘	–
Meltwater channels Classified as: <50 m width 50–150 m width >150 m width	Indicates the direction(s) of glaciofluvial drainage. Preservation may reveal the relative age of drainage routes. May indicate the approximate and relative position of the ice-margin.	May be mistaken for palaeochannels (e.g. proglacial meltwater channels) or gullying in satellite imagery. May be occupied by modern drainage. In the field, proglacial meltwater channels within proglacial outwash plains are difficult to discern.	When mapping remotely, proglacial meltwater channels appear sinuous to braided, possess a dark-light shading, and are found in large numbers within proglacial outwash plains. Ice marginal and subglacial meltwater channels appear sinuous, and cross-cut moraines and moraine complexes or deposits. May be occupied by modern drainage or wetlands.	31648	–	✘	✘	✘	✘	–	✘	✘	✘	–
Kettle holes	Indicative of an area of deposition. May suggest a stagnant ice margin	When mapped remotely, kettle holes are easily confused with small lakes.	In satellite imagery, kettle holes possess an ovate or sub-rounded planform shape. Hollows may contain small lakes, and are found within proglacial outwash plains or moraine complexes or deposits.	1572	–	✘	–	✘	–	✘	✘	✘	✘	–
Non-glacial landforms
Fans or deltas	When present, may indicate reworking of underlying sediments.	Fans may be confused with perched deltas in satellite imagery, particularly when palaeolake shoreline evidence is not apparent.	Both in satellite imagery and in the field: fan shaped in plan view, may be gently sloping towards the main river channel or lake. May contain active or palaeochannels on their surface.	1506	263	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘
Rivers Adapted from Davies et al. (2020) PATICE shapefiles.	Indicates the origin and direction of modern drainage routes.	Smaller tributary rivers may be difficult to map in heavily vegetated areas.	Straight, sinuous, or braided channels, which can be traced for a significant distance. Usually contain contemporary drainage.	–	–	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘
Palaeochannels	Indicates the presence and extent of past drainage routes.	May be mistaken for proglacial meltwater channels when modern rivers are occupying proglacial outwash plains.	Will usually be found next to active river channels, may retain water if recently abandoned (e.g. oxbow lakes). Sinuous-to-braided morphology.	9732	–	✘	✘	✘	✘	–	✘	✘	✘	✘
River terraces	Indicates the extent of the former floodplain and the possible re-working of sediments.	May be misinterpreted as a proglacial outwash terrace where modern fluvial drainage is cutting through proglacial outwash plains.	Flat-topped sediment accumulations which possess a steep scarp slope. Found adjacent to modern rivers, floodplains, or palaeochannels.	493	36	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	✘
Major floodplains	Determines lateral extent of modern fluvial activity.	Difficulties in distinguishing between floodplains and wetlands when these landforms coincide.	Will often be covered with low-lying vegetation. May appear waterlogged in satellite imagery. Found adjacent to rivers.	–	311	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	–
Lakes	May indicate the presence of palaeolake shorelines or perched deltas.	In satellite imagery, small water bodies may be mistaken for kettle holes in the main outlet valleys.	Water bodies of varying sizes which may be frozen.	3299	2793	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘
Landslides or slumps	Indicates areas where underlying landforms and sediments have been re-mobilised.	When mapping remotely, landslides or slumps may be mistaken for lateral moraines, particularly when the source of the slope failure is not apparent.	In satellite imagery, slumped material containing irregular or undulating ridges. Usually found below a rounded hollow or scar which may be identified as the source of the slope failure.	40	123	–	–	–	–	–	✘	✘	✘	✘
Wetlands	May indicate areas of recent fluvial activity or re-working.	May be mistaken for floodplains in satellite imagery when near modern rivers.	In satellite imagery, usually appear green and saturated in comparison to the surrounding landscape. Covered with low lying vegetation. Found adjacent to rivers or lakes.	–	1550	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	✘	–
			Total	72165	25073.9

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Data Availability Statement

All shapefiles are available in the supplementary materials of this paper.