Glacial geomorphology of the central and southern Chilotan Archipelago (42.2°S–43.5°S), northwestern Patagonia

Figures & data

Figure 1. (a) Location of the study area in southern South America. Former limit of the Patagonian Ice Sheet according to Davies et al. (2020) is outlined as a white polygon. Present Patagonian Ice Fields are depicted in grey. (b) Overview of the Chilean Lake District and the Chilotan archipelago showing the coverage of used aerial photographs (dark blue dots: centroids of GEOTEC images) and satellite imagery (light green boxes: Sentinel 1 imagery; blue light boxes: ALOS PALSAR digital elevation model). Field-checking areas (solid red line: inspected on the ground; dashed red line: helicopter inspection). (c) Digital elevation model of Isla Grande de Chiloé region highlighting the main sites of the study area.

Three-boxes figure. Upper-left panel shows the southern tip of South America corresponding to Chile and Argentina with the inferred extent of the Patagonian Ice Sheet during the last glaciation, which broadly coincides with the Cordillera de los Andes. Upper-right panel show a DEM of the Chilean Lake District and the Chilotan Archipelago with the coverage of the different imagery used to compile the main geomorphic map. Lower panel presents a DEM of the central-southern Isla Grande de Chiloé divided in four sectors. From north to south, these sectors are Dalcahue-Castro, Lago Cucao-Isla Talcán, Lago Tepuhueico-Estero Compu and Tantauco. Red squares in Castro, Lago Quilque, Estero Compu and Tantauco mark the area covered by images presented in the paper.

Figure 2. ALOS PALSAR digital elevation model presenting the approximate extent of the major glacial limits in the Chilean Lake District and Isla Grande de Chiloé according to Andersen et al. (1999) and García (2012). The GEBCO 2019 bathymetry of the Chilotan Inner Sea is also shown. Most constraining radiocarbon ages (Denton et al., 1999; García, 2012; Moreno et al., 2015) and recent Bayesian-modelled age based on composite ¹⁴C, ¹⁰Be and infrared stimulated luminescence (García et al., 2021) of the Golfo Corovado ice lobe activity. Green dots indicate close maximum-limiting ¹⁴C ages for glacial advances. Yellow dots represent close minimum-limiting ¹⁴C for glacial advances. Dark blue dot points the deposition age of the upper Lago Cucao outwash terrace. Radiocarbon ages have been recalculated using the calibration curve from Hogg et al. (2020). From north to south, black dashed arrows indicate the inferred ice flow of the Lago Llanquihue, Seno Reloncaví, Golfo Ancud and Golfo Corcovado ice lobes.

ALOS PALSAR digital elevation model of the Chilean Lake District and Isla Grande Chiloe showing the extent of the major glacial drifts in the region from Lago Llanquihue to Lago Tepuhueico, named as Colegual, Casma and Llanquihue, from the westernmost (outer) to easternmost (inner). The Chilotan Inner Sea is represented with the GEBCO 2019 bathymetry map. White boxes present the most constraining ages of the Golfo Corcovado ice lobe fluctuations from numerous sites across Isla Grande de Chiloé. Purple, black, and brown squares show the extent of previous maps in the region compiled by Heusser and Flint (1977), Andersen et al. (1999) and García (2012), respectively. Dashed blue square show the area mapped in this study including the minor islands of the Chilotan Archipelago.

Table 1. Stratigraphic names of the glacial drift hosted in the Chilean Lake District and Isla Grande de Chiloé according to Mercer (1972, 1976), Heusser and Flint (1977), Porter (1981) and Denton et al. (1999) Golfo Corcovado ice lobe drift sequence labeled by Mercer (1972, 1976) and Denton et al. (1999).

Mercer (1976)	Heusser and Flint (1977)	Porter (1981)	Andersen et al. (1999)	Morphostratigraphic position	Age
Llanquihue	Llanquihue	Llanquihue	Llanquihue	Inner Outer	Younger Older
Casma	Intermediate	Santa María	Casma
Colegual	San Antonio	Río Llico	Colegual
Río Frío	?	Caracol	Pre-Casma/Colegual

Figure 3. Schematic map showing main oceanographic and tectonic features in the study area. Offshore, the South Pacific current splits into the Humboldt current to the north and the Cape Horn current to the south broadly at the latitude of the Chilotan Archipelago (Strub et al., 2019). In the continent, the location of some of the volcanoes and larger caldera systems in the Southern Volcanic Zone (∼33–46°S) of South America (modified from Stern et al., 2007). The grey shaded line indicates the eastern limit of the Cenozoic arc volcanism, while the dashed north-south line labeled LOFZ is the Liquiñe-Ofqui Fault Zone (Cembrano et al., 1996, 2000). Hypocenters of main earthquakes since 1950, and their spatial classification with respect to the Chile-Perú Trench, are also indicated (Ruiz & Madariaga, 2018).

Schematic map of southern South America showing the Chile-Perú Trench running from N to S and the main surficial oceanic currents of Humboldt and Cape Horn heading to the north and south, respectively, close to the Chilean coast in the Pacific Ocean. In the continent, numerous stratovolcanoes and Calderas are associated to the Liquiñe-Ofquí Fault Zone in the Cordillera de los Andes. The hypocenters of main earthquakes since 1950. An Interplate earthquake (Mw 7.6) occurred in 2016 very close to the southern coast of Isla Grande de Chiloé.

Table 2. Summary of glacial landforms, identification criteria, uncertainties, and previous mapping of the geomorphology of the Golfo Corcovado ice lobe (adapted from Bendle et al., 2017; Darvill et al., 2014; Leger et al., 2020; Lovell et al., 2012; Soteres et al., 2020).

	Landform	Morphology	Identification criteria	Uncertainties	Interpretation	Previous mapping
Ice-marginal landforms	Moraine ridge	Medium to large positive relief with plan morphology ranging between conic to linear and composed of glacial sediments with large boulders of Andean lithologies (granites, tonalites, metasedimentary) periodically protruding.	Sharp and continuous feature elevated above surrounding topography. Often aligned in the same direction. Limited by marked slopes on DEM.	Difficult to distinguish from moraine terrain. It can be confused with bedrock promontory.	Generally, it marks the former position of the glacier margin. In some cases, it could also reflect minor stand-stills positions of the ice-front.	Andersen et al. (1999) García (2012)
	Moraine terrain	Irregular topography composed by rounded hills made of glacial sediments. Sometimes, it is possible to identify large boulders (erratics) on the surface of these landforms	Diffuse pattern without significant slope breaks on DEM.	When subdued, difficult to differentiate from outwash plains. It can also be hard to distinguish from bedrock promontories, especially in the Tantauco sector.	Indicative of areas previously covered by ice.	Andersen et al. (1999) García (2012) Both studies designated this unit as hummocky moraine.
	Ice-contact slope	Prominent linear to arcuate slopes with homogeneous inclinations extending for tens to hundreds of meters. The top of this landform often exhibits moraine ridges and/or the headwater of an outwash plains. Locally, the slope is heavily incised by fluvial channels.	Extensive and sharp breaks on the slopes on DEM.	Difficult to differentiate when located within mountain areas and/or steep sloped coastlines.	Marks the former position of the glacier margin.	Andersen et al. (1999) García (2012)
Subglacial landforms	Subglacial channel	Linear or sinuous long depression reaching several tens of km with smooth slopes and flat bottoms. Usually ends abruptly in lithological boundaries. Frequently occupied by lakes or wetlands. Punctually delimited by moraine ridges.	Extensive linear-to-sinuous features delimited by smooth slope breaks and sub-horizontal valley floors forming U-shaped valleys on DEM.	Potential misidentification with meltwater channels.	Indicative of former ice coverage and major subglacial drainage pathways.	García (2012) but labeled as glacial trough.
	Ice-sculpted bedrock	Major bedrock outcrops with rounded plan form and smooth surface. Minor moraine ridges and ice-contactslopes are often attached to bedrock flanks.	Extensive rounded features of contrasting color within surrounding landscape in satellite imagery. Delimited by marked slope breaks in DEM.	When covered by vegetation, difficult to distinguish from moraine ridges or moraine terrain.	Indicative of former ice coverage.	Unmapped
	Rock lineation	Minor bedrock outcrops with a linear plan form reaching ∼1 km in length and usually nearby the Cordillera de la Costa.	Linear features with contrasting colors with adjacent landscape on satellite imagery. Parallel and subdued slope-breaks on DEM.	Potential misidentification with moraine ridges.	Indicative of former ice-flow direction.	Andersen et al. (1999) García (2012)
Glaciofluvial landforms	Outwash plains	Extensive gently inclined surfaces (0–5°) grading from ice-marginal features. Frequently composed by sequences of distinctive terraces and dissected by channels and composed by glaciofluvial sediments. Presence of sharp scarp marking different terrace levels. Often dissected by meltwater channel.	Areas of homogeneous color imprinted by linear to undulating features in aerial and satellite imagery. Homogeneous fine-grained texture interrupted by clear breaks on the predominant slope on DEM.	Potential misclassification when appear in contact with subdued moraine terrain. Surface gradient only apparent on DEM.	Indicative of former meltwater drainage pathways. Headwaters might mark a former position of the ice-front.	Andersen et al. (1999) García (2012)
	Outwash scarp	Linear-to arcuate slope breaks imprinted on the outwash plains. Often, they delimit different outwash terrace levels or meltwater channels.	Feature marked by shadowing in aerial and satellite imagery. Sharp slope breaks on the outwash plains in DEM.	Potential misidentification with meltwater channels scarps.	Indicative of several stages of outwash construction associated to different glacial events.	Andersen et al. (1999)
	Meltwater channel	Deeply incised channel with gently inclined floor (0–5°) generally delimited by step scarps, often imprinted over outwash plains. Straight to sinuous pattern. Headwaters are associated to ice marginal features. Usually, oversized related to modern drainage. Punctually occupied by lacustrine basin.	Linear features with margins defined by shadowing and different colors in aerial and satellite imagery. Fine graded texture delimitated by sharp slope breaks in DEM.	Difficult to distinguish from fluvial channels when constrained in mountainous areas. Potential misidentification with subglacial channels.	Indicative of former meltwater pathways. When associated to moraine ridges, delimitates the approximate position of ice lateral margins.	Andersen et al. (1999) García (2012)
Glaciolacustrine landforms	Paleodeltas	Minor horizontal surface (0–5°) with fan-like plan form, commonly associated to outwash plains or fluvial channels ending in depressions.	Small flat surface with fan-like limits and homogeneous fine-grained texture in DEM.	Minor features, difficult to identify in aerial and satellite imagery. Potential misinterpretation with outwash plains. Fieldwork and stratigraphic analysis is required for confirmation.	Marks the maximum height of former glacial lake levels.	Unmapped
	Glaciolacustrine irregular terrain	Irregular topography, heavily incised by fluvial channel. Associated to the proximal portion of ice-contact slopes located at the eastern coastline of the main island.	Distinctive fluvial erosion pattern in aerial and satellite imagery. Irregular pattern with no significant slope breaks in DEM.	Potential misidentification with moraine terrain. Fieldwork and stratigraphic analysis are needed for confirmation.	Delimits the extent of former glacial lakes.	Heusser and Flint (1977)
Fluvial landforms	Fluvial channel	Linear and deeply incised channel ranging from 1 to 10 km in length and V-shape profile.	Elongated and deep valleys in aerial and satellite imagery. Sharp and steep breaks on the slope, marked V-shaped profile in Dem.	Difficult to differentiate from meltwater channel when located at mountainous areas.	Marks modern drainage pathways.	García (2012) identified this feature as Holocene riverbed.
Coastal landforms	Sea cliff	Linear and continuous scarps of steep slopes and tens of m in high along the coastline.	Sharp and linear brakes in the slopes of the coastline on DEM.	Potential misidentification with ice-contact slopes.	Indicates areas dominated by marine processes.	Unmapped
	Coastal features	Nearly horizontal surfaces (0–3°) located at sea level on the coastline. Often composed by sandy beaches delimited by sea cliffs.	Areas of homogeneous light colors close to the coastline. Sandy bars are often visible in aerial and satellite imagery. Fine grained texture with flat topography on DEM.	Difficult to delimitate when associated with outwash plains.	Marks areas dominated by marine processes (sandy beaches) or the between fluvial to marine processes (estuaries).	García (2012) mapped sandy to gravel beaches mostly in the western shore of the main island.
Subaqueous landforms	Subaqueous moraine	Linear-to-arcuate positive relief in the sea floor associated with terrestrial ice marginal features.	Continuous linear-to-arcuate positive relief delimitated by contrasting breaks on the slope of the sea floor in bathymetry DEM.	Hard to differentiate from morainal banks or grounding zone wedges. Difficult to field check.	Potentially marks the former position of the glacier margin.	Unmapped
	Subaqueous channel	Linear-to-sinuous depressions delimited by marked subaqueous scarps reaching several tens of km.	Continuous depression with linear-to-sinuous plan form marked by sharp brakes on the slope of the sea floor in bathymetry DEM.	Difficult to field check.	Potentially indicative of former meltwater drainage.	Rodrigo (2006)
	Subaqueous lineation	Long and linear positive relief reaching ∼10 km in the bottom of the sea floor.	Long linear feature with 10 km in length and delimitated by sharp brakes on the slope of the sea floor in bathymetry DEM.	Difficult to field check.	Indicative of former ice flow direction.	Rodrigo (2006)

Figure 4. Oblique aerial photographs of the morainal topography and moraine ridge near Castro (Figure 1(c)).

Four-boxes figure. Upper panoramic view showing a landscape composed by irregular topography interpreted as morainic terrain covered by meadows and disperse forest. This landform ends abruptly on a steep sea cliff facing a channel of the Chilotan Inner Sea. Lower left panel shows a conical hill covered by open forest and meadow which is interpreted as part of a moraine ridge. Lower central and right panels present irregular topography inferred to be morainal terrain.

Figure 5. (a) Overview of the sequence of outwash plains nearby Lago Cucao and ice-contact slope of Lago Quilque (Figure 1(c)). (b) Detail of a stratigraphic exposure at the culmination of the Lago Quilque ice-contact slope.

Two-boxes figure. Upper box shows a panoramic view of the Lago Cucao area highlighting a lower outwash plain connected through an ice-contact slope to an upper outwash plain. The same geomorphic elements are observable on the opposite shore of the lake. Lower box present a stratigraphic exposure at the culmination of the ice-contact slope composed by two main unit. The base consists on massive sands with gravel lens in erosional contact with the upper unit composed by subhorizontal beds of sands and gravels.

Figure 6. (a) ALOS PALSAR digital elevation model of the subglacial channels located in the eastern shore of Isla Grande de Chiloé between Queilen and Quellón (Figure 1(c)). (b) Geomorphic map of the area illustrating the extent of major subglacial channels. (c) Oblique aerial overview of a subglacial channel. The location and direction are indicated by a red circle with lines in 6b.

Three-boxes figure. Upper left panel show an elevation model of Isla Grande de Chiloé east coast between Queilen and Quellón, including Estero Compu. High elevations are shown in yellow/orange color, whereas low elevations appear in blue. A marked channel with U-shaped profile clearly runs from Quellón area towards the north and then abruptly turn westwards near Estero Compu. Upper right panel show a hillshade of the same area with the channels mapped as pink polygons forming and intricate east-to-west trending network. Lower panel shows an oblique aerial overview of the mayor channel of the area with gentle slopes culminated on a nearly flat surface. A road runs along the wide valley floor towards the west.

Figure 7. (a) Oblique aerial overview of the outwash constrained by the Cordillera de la Costa topography in the Tantauco area (Figure 1(c)). (b) Oblique aerial overview of the southern coastline of Tantauco (Figure 1(c)).

Two-boxes figure. Left panel oblique aerial view of the Tantauco sector showing an extensive outwash plan with a channel running between low relief mountain of Cordillera de la Costa. Right panel oblique aerial view of the south coast of Isla Grande de Chiloé in Tantauco area. The image presents a sequence of minor, linear and parallel hills interpreted as beach ridges, possibly affected by post-glacial uplift.

Figure 8. (a) Slope map derived from the ALOS PALSAR digital elevation model of the ice-contact slope located in the Río Medina valley of the Tantauco sector (Figure 1(c)). (b) Geomorphic map illustrating the distribution of main ice marginal features of a portion of the Río Medina valley and considered as the outermost position of the Golfo Corcovado ice lobe in the Tantauco sector. (c) Oblique aerial overview of the ice-contact slope located in the Río Media basin in the Tantauco sector.

Three-boxes figure. Upper left panel shows a slope model of the Río Medina valley in Tantauco sector. Upper right panel presents our mapping of the area composed by a sinuous channel running from south to north and cross cutting an ice-contact slope with moraine ridges on its culminations. Lower panel shows an oblique aerial image of the ice-contact slope and associated moraine ridges and outwash plains.

Figure 9. Extent of the Golfo Corcovado ice lobe inferred from our geomorphic map. Solid lines represent ice-front position reflected by the geomorphic record. Dashed lines represent inferred ice-front positions due to the fragmentary nature of the geomorphic record. Semitransparent dark blue polygon indicates the inferred extent of the proglacial Lake Castro and black dashed arrow the potential drainage path during its early stages.

Read the detailed description of this figure

Hillshade model of Isla Grande de Chiloé showing the extent of four positions of the Golfo Corcovado ice-front, we named COR1 to COR4 from the outermost (west) to the innermost (east). COR1 remains mostly butted against the eastern flank of Cordillera de la Costa except for the Cucao-Huillinco lakes. COR2 is mostly displayed closely inboard of COR1 but it is recognizable between Dalcahue and L. Tepuhueico. COR3 runs across the interior of Isla Grande de Chiloé eastwards of L. Huillinco, L. Tepuhueico. To the south of the latter, COR3 is not clearly represented until L. Chaiguaco y L. Huillin in the Tantauco sector. Finally, COR4 runs along the east coast of Isla Grande de Chiloé, punctually crossing marine channels in the Dalcahue-Castro area, Estero Compu and Estero Yaldad.

Davies, B. J., Darvill, C. M., Lovell, H., Bendle, J. M., Dowdeswell, J. A., Fabel, D., García, J. L., Geiger, A., Glasser, N. F., Gheorghiu, D. M., Harrison, S., Hein, A. S., Kaplan, M. R., Martin, J. R. V., Mendelová, M., Palmer, A., Pelto, M., Rodés, A., Sagredo, E. A., … Thorndycraft, V. R. (2020). The evolution of the Patagonian Ice Sheet from 35 ka to the present day (PATICE). Earth-Science Reviews, (204), 103152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104171

 Google Scholar

Andersen, B. G., Denton, G. H., & Lowell, T. V. (1999). Glacial geomorphologic maps of Llanquihue drift in the area of the southern Lake District, Chile. Geografiska Annaler, Series A: Physical Geography, 81(2), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0459.00056

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

García, J. L. (2012). Late pleistocene ice fluctuations and glacial geomorphology of the Archipiélago de Chiloé, southern Chile. Geografiska Annaler, Series A: Physical Geography, 94(4), 459–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0459.2012.00471.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Denton, G. H., Lowell, T. V., Heusser, C. J., Schlüchter, C., Andersen, B. G., Heusser, L. E., Moreno, P. I., & Marchant, D. R. (1999). Geomorphology, stratigraphy, and radiocarbon chronology of Llanquihue drift in the area of the southern Lake District, Sena Reloncaví, and Isla Grande de Chiloé, Chile. Geografiska Annaler, Series A: Physical Geography, 81(2), 167–229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0435-3676.1999.00057.x

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Moreno, P. I., Denton, G. H., Moreno, H., Lowell, T. V., Putnam, A. E., & Kaplan, M. R. (2015). Radiocarbon chronology of the last glacial maximum and its termination in northwestern Patagonia. Quaternary Science Reviews, 122, 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.05.027

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

García, J. L., Lüthgens, C., Vega, R. M., Rodés, A., Hein, A. S., & Binnie, S. A. (2021). A composite 10Be, IR-50 and 14C chronology of the pre-Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) full ice extent of the western Patagonian Ice Sheet on the Isla de Chiloé, south Chile (42oS). Quaternary Science Journal, 70(1), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.5194/egqsj-70-105-2021

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Hogg, A. G., Heaton, T. J., Hua, Q., Palmer, J. G., Turney, C. S. M., Southon, J., Bayliss, A., Blackwell, P. G., Boswijk, G., Bronk Ramsey, C., Pearson, C., Petchey, F., Reimer, P., Reimer, R., & Wacker, L. (2020). SHCal20 southern hemisphere calibration, 0–55,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon, 62(4), 759–778. https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2020.59

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mercer, J. (1972). Chilean glacial chronology 20,000 to 11,000 carbon-14 years ago: Some global comparisons. Science, 176(4039), 1118–1120. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.176.4039.1118

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Mercer, J. H. (1976). Glacial history of southernmost South America. Quaternary Research, 6(2), 125–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(76)90047-8

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Heusser, C. J., & Flint, R. F. (1977). Quaternary glaciations and environments of northern isla chiloé, Chile. Geology, 5(5), 305–308. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1977)5<305:QGAEON>2.0.CO;2

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Porter, S. C. (1981). Pleistocene glaciation in the southern Lake District of Chile. Quaternary Research, 16(3), 263–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(81)90013-2

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Strub, P. T., James, C., Montecino, V., Rutllant, J. A., & Blanco, J. L. (2019). Ocean circulation along the southern Chile transition region (38o–46oS): Mean, seasonal and interannual variability, with focus on 2014–2016. Progress in Oceanography, 172, 159–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2019.01.004

 PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Stern, C. R., Moreno, H., López-Escobar, L., Clavero, J. E., Lara, L. E., Naranjo, J. A., Parada, M. A., & Skewes, A. M. (2007). Chilean volcanoes. In T. Moreno, & W. Gibbons (Eds.), The Geology of Chile (pp. 147–178). The Geological Society. https://doi.org/10.1144/GOCH

 Google Scholar

Cembrano, J., Hervé, F., & Lavenu, A. (1996). The Liquiñe-Ofqui fault zone: A long-lived intra-arc fault system in southern Chile. Tectonophysics, 259(1-3), 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(95)00066-6

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Cembrano, J., Schermer, E., Lavenu, A., & Sanhueza, A. (2000). Contrasting nature of deformation along an intra-arc shear zone, the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault zone, southern Chilean Andes. Tectonophysics, 319(2), 129–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(99)00321-2

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Ruiz, S., & Madariaga, R. (2018). Historical and recent large megathrust earthquakes in Chile. Tectonophysics, 733, 37–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2018.01.015

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Bendle, J. M., Thorndycraft, V. R., & Palmer, A. P. (2017). The glacial geomorphology of the lago Buenos Aires and lago pueyrredón ice lobes of central patagonia. Journal of Maps, 13(2), 654–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2017.1351908

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Darvill, C. M., Stokes, C. R., Bentley, M. J., & Lovell, H. (2014). A glacial geomorphological map of the southernmost ice lobes of Patagonia: The Bahía Inútil-San Sebastián, Magellan, Otway, Skyring and Río Gallegos lobes. Journal of Maps, 10(3), 500–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2014.890134

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Leger, T. P. M., Hein, A. S., Bingham, R. G., Martini, M. A., Soteres, R. L., Sagredo, E. A., & Martínez, O. A. (2020). The glacial geomorphology of the Río Corcovado, Río Huemul and Lago Palena/General Vintter valleys, northeastern Patagonia (43°S, 71°W). Journal of Maps, 16(2), 651–668. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2020.1794990

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Lovell, H., Stokes, C. R., Bentley, M. J., & Benn, D. I. (2012). A glacial geomorphological map of the Seno Skyring-Seno Otway-Strait of Magellan region, southernmost Patagonia. Journal of Maps, 7(1), 318–339. https://doi.org/10.4113/jom.2011.1156

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Soteres, R. L., Peltier, C., Kaplan, M. R., & Sagredo, E. A. (2020). Glacial geomorphology of the Strait of Magellan ice lobe, southernmost Patagonia, South America. Journal of Maps, 16(2), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2020.1736197

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar

Rodrigo, C. (2006). Topografía submarina en canales de la Patagonia Norte. In N. Silva, & S. Palma (Eds.), Avances en el conocimiento oceanográfico de las aguas interiores chilenas, Puerto Montt a cabo de Hornos (pp. 19–23). Comité Oceanográfico Nacional.

 Google Scholar

Data availability statement

ESRI shapefiles (*.shp) for visualizing the map produced in this study are freely available, as long as original publication is properly cited. A folder with twenty-four shapefiles can be downloaded from a Mendeley Data online repository using the following doi:10.17632/hzg2tvvxk8.1.