Glacial geomorphology between the Gran Campo Nevado and Estrecho de Magallanes, Chile (52–53°S, 73°W)

Figures & data

Figure 1. Research area and published studies. (a) Study area indicated by box west of the Gran Campo Nevado, located ca. 130 km south of the Campo de Hielo Patagónico Sur. (b) Mapped area includes overlap rectangles of locations studied previously. Solid black symbols correspond to marine sediment records (MSR), hollow symbols indicate lake sediments cores (LS), Biester et al. (2002) utilize peat records (PR), Lamy et al. (2010) include MSR, LS and PR data while Schimpf et al. (2011) use cave and stalagmites samples (CS). Blue squares indicate the closest automatic weather stations.

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(a) Regional map of southern tip of Chile showing the location of the study area, delimitated by a black polygon, and the position of four Automatic Weather Stations around it, represented as small blue squares. (a) Long description: Regional map between 50°00′ to 54°00′ southern latitude and 71°30′ and 74°20′ western longitude, at the southern tip of Chile, North sign pointing upward. The bottom side of the image shows the location of the study area bounded by a 5-sided black polygon, just north of the Magellan Strait, with its eastern boundary the Gran Campo Nevado. The image also shows the position of 4 Automatic Weather Stations represented as small blue squares surrounding the study area: one on the East side at the confluence of the Magellan Strait and Pacific Ocean, and the other 3 located towards Northeast of the study area. The Campo de Hielo Patagónico Sur is indicated as reference on the top part of the map; on the bottom part of the map the Muñoz Gamero Peninsula is shown, on which the Gran Campo Nevado is bordering the study area towards East; Seno Skyring, Riesco Island and Seno Otway are found to the East of Gran Campo Nevado. South of the Strait of Magellan, which has a Northwest–Southeast orientation, the Santa Ines Ice Field is indicated, and the Brunswick Peninsula is displayed on the bottom right of the map. (b) Expanded view of the research area showing the location of core samples and the study areas covered by other research projects, within or near the current research area. (b) Long description: Expanded view of the same map between 52° 36′ to 53° 30′ southern latitude and 72° 50′ to 73° 58′ western longitude, showing the study area with a black polygon, inside of which the Beaufort Bay, the Muñoz Gamero Peninsula, the Tamar, Emiliano Figueroa and Providencia islands are displayed. There are seven boxes with different types of borders to indicate the areas covered in the previous studies of Breuer et al. (2013a), Kilian et al. (2007b), and Koch and Kilian (2005). The location of three automatic weather stations (the same stations as in (a)) are also indicated as blue squares. There are specified symbols distributed within or near the study area that correspond to core samples of marine sediment records, lake sediments cores, peat records and cave and stalagmites. The samples are described in the works of Breuer et al. (2013b), Breuer, Kilian, Schörner, et al. (2013), Shiroya et al. (2013), Kilian et al. (2006), Biester et al. (2002), Lamy et al. (2010) and Schimpf et al. (2011). In addition, the location of some places is indicated as a reference: Manuel Rodríguez Island in the extreme Northwest of the map, and from there, from North to South are situated the Strait of Magellan, Desolación Island and Childs Island. Colcolo Bay is shown as a body of water bordering the Southeastern limit of the study area about 35 km south from the highest point of the Gran Campo Nevado.

Figure 2. Spatial coverage of imagery used for geomorphological mapping. Planet satellite orthorectified images (Imagery © 2019 Planet Labs Inc.) form the base-map. Mosaics from these satellite images and from Sentinel-2 images cover the entire mapped area so are not indicated. The UAV footage area represents total area visualized during the flight. Colored hillshade of 45° is from ALOS PALSAR DEM and delimits the mapped area. Selected codes from the DGA inventory provided for Gran Campo Nevado glaciers (see Table S1). Islands mentioned in the text are labeled with numbers: 1: Isla Tamar (∼10 km²), 2: Isla Emiliano Figueroa (∼170 km²), 3: Isla Providencia (∼25 km²), 4: Isla Eleodoro (∼8 km²), 5: Isla Merino (∼11 km²).

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Study area map with a colored hillshade model (based on ALOS PALSAR DEM), indicating the covered area by the different image sources used to create the geomorphological map. Glaciers are displayed as white polygons, mostly concentrated in the Gran Campo Nevado, at the North-eastern part of the map. Long Description: Map between 52°75′ to 53°15′ southern latitude and 73°54′ to 73°6′ western longitude, North sign pointing upward, showing a colored hillshade model of the study area. The rest of the territory is presented in grayscale. Within the study area, the blue color represents the lowest elevation (sea level) which clearly marks the fjords and bays in the sector. As the elevation increases, the colors change from blue to green, yellow, orange until reaching color red, which represents the highest elevation (1700 m above the sea level), at the North-eastern part of the map, over the Gran Campo Nevado summits. The different image sources used to create the geomorphological map are indicated delimited by polygons with different types of strokes and colors. Ordered by size of area covered in relation to the studied area, from largest to smallest, image sources are indicated as follows: aerial photos from the Aerial Photographic Mapping Service of the Chilean Air Force (SAF), Bing Images, Google Earth images and UAV footage. The glaciers, located in the North-Eastern part of the map, have been represented with white polygons, and identified with the glacier inventory codes from the Chilean Directorate General of Water (DGA); from North to South they are 008b, 005, 007 and 008, 011 and 012. As a reference, Bahía Beaufort, Seno Icy and Bahía de los Glaciares are indicated, limiting the northern margin of the study area, and the Strait of Magellan and Xaltegua Gulf limiting the southern margin. Within the study area, the location of Punta Pedro, Seno Glaciar, Ensenada Falso Martinez, Canal Almirante Martinez and Península Muñoz Gamero are indicated in the northern part; in the southern part, Northbrook Sound, Punta Cummins and Estero Portalupi are shown. In addition, the location of Desolación Island is indicated at the southwestern end of the map, and islands mentioned in the text are labeled with numbers from 1 to 5.

Table 1. Remote sensing data used.

Data set	Acquisition date	Spatial Resolution (m)	Quantity
Planet satellite images	2017–2019	3	19
Sentinel 2 satellite images	20/10/2018	10 (bands: RGB, NIR)	2
SAF aerial photos	1978–1982	1–1.2; scale 1:60.000	26
ALOS PALSAR DEM	10-06-2015	12.5	1
Maxar Technologies 2019 (Google Earth)	10-10-2004	sub metric	-
Digital Globe 2019 (Bing Map)	No information	sub metric	-

The respective areal cover of each product is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 3. Examples of erosional landforms mapped (see Figures 1 and 2 for location): (a) Hillshade from ALOS PALSAR DEM illuminated from northwest showing glacial cirques in the area close to Punta Pedro. (b) Map of coalescing cirques and arêtes, with a tarn at the base of the most north-eastern cirque. Lakes are shown in blue. (c) Infrared Sentinel image showing eroded bedrock as a gray surface. (d) Interpreted whalebacks (continuous line) and roche moutonnées (dashed line). Ice flow from east to west, selected landform long profiles shown in meters (not to scale). Profiles 1 and 2 show asymmetric cross profile with smooth stoss and steep lee side, whilst profile 3 is symmetric. (e) Planet image showing the clearest asymmetric roche moutonnée example in Falso Martinez Valley. (f) Same location as image 3e with hillshade. Ice flow from SE to NW, long profile of rouche moutonnée plotted in meters (not to scale).

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(a) Gray hillshade model, illuminated from the Northwest, in the sector between Punta Pedro and Almirante Martinez Channel, where a topographic high is located. Long Description: Gray hillshade model illuminated from the Northwest, between ∼52°48′ to ∼52°52′ southern latitude and ∼73°26′ to ∼73°34′ western longitude. Punta Pedro is indicated at the northwestern end, and the Almirante Martinez Channel (which has a Northwest– Southeast orientation) is located in the bottom section of the image. Between Punta Pedro and Canal Alte Martinez a topographic high is located, which is part of the western end of Península Muñoz Gamero. (b) Fig 3a interpreted, indicating the presence of five glacial cirques as orange line and several lakes as blue polygons. (c) Infrared satellite image in the Bahía Zargazos sector. The sea is shown in black color, red color highlights the vegetation cover and eroded bedrock devoid of vegetation is shown in gray color at Peninsula Tamar. (d) Image from (c) interpreted, showing whalebacks with NW–SE orientation, Roche Moutonnées with NW–SE to W–E orientation, and several lakes as blue polygons. In addition, the topographic profiles of two whalebacks and one roche moutonnée are displayed. (d) Long Description: Same base image as (c) with geomorphic interpretation. Lakes indicated with blue polygons, majority of lakes (n = 14 of 18) east of 73°44 west. Three whalebacks with Northwest–Southeast orientation indicated with continuous line. Three roche moutonnées with orientation Northwest–Southeast to West–East indicated by dashed line. Above with interpretation, indicating the distribution of lakes (blue polygons), interpreted whalebacks (continuous line) and roche moutonnées (dashed line). In addition, three white graphics show the topographic profiles of two whalebacks and one roche moutonne, showing the pronounced stoss side of the latter. (e) Planet image in natural color of the Almirante Martinez Channel and Emiliano Figueroa island, where water bodies are observed in black color, polished rock in brown color, vegetation in green color and snow in white color. (f) Image from (e) used with a translucent gray hillshade model draped on top to accentuate the relief. One roche mouteéne with a NW–SE orientation with the a-axis indicated by a dashed line. A topographic profile shows the asymmetric shape of the landform with the stoss side facing in Northwest.

Figure 4. Examples of whalebacks mapped in the field (see Figure 2 for locations). (a) Micro-scale whaleback at Seno Icy. (b) Micro-scale fractured whaleback at Isla Tamar. (c,d) Back and side view of a meso-scale whaleback colonized by vegetation on its stoss side, image captured during a UAV flight at Seno Glaciar.

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(a) It shows a whaleback landform in the center of the image, and in the background, there are two researchers. North points to the upper left of the image, and an ice flow direction arrow is pointing to the South. (b) There is a small lake in the background, and in the foreground, there is a cracked front of a well-rounded whaleback. On the right side of the whaleback there are two researchers for scale. North arrow points to the left and the ice flow arrow points to the South West. (c) View from back of a larger whaleback (meso-scale) with investigators standing on it. A steeper landscape with subvertical rock walls of approximately 15–20 m is shown in the background while on the right, a part of a fjord at Seno Glaciar is shown. Ice flow arrow is pointing to the West. (d) View from North of the same whaleback (meso-scale) in (c). Three investigators are standing on it next to erratic boulders on top of the whaleback. Ice flow arrow is pointing to the West.

Table 2. Identification criteria for landforms mapped from satellite/aerial imagery.

Item	Morphology	Identification Criteria	Preferred recognition tool	Glaciological significance	Uncertainties/confusion
Glacier landforms & sediment
Cirques	Wide amphitheater-shaped pots on mountain flanks or embedded in plateau edges. Shows abrupt boundaries with the surrounding terrain.	Semicircular shapes limited by steep slopes. Shaded by changes in height or relative relief. The base of the cirques may have color variations with respect to the surrounding environment. It generally contains a lake (Tarn) at its base.	Best in APs > Hillshade and slope maps from DEM > GI > BI, PSI, SI.	Indicates the presence of restricted or localized mountain glaciation. Allows palaeo glacier equilibrium line altitudes (ELA) calculations.	Hardly likely to confuse.
U-shaped valley	Wide valleys with a U-shaped cross-sectional profile.	Wide valley limited by steep sloping walls. In the area often forming fjords.	APs > Hillshade from DEM > BI, GI, SI, PSI.	Indicates direction of glacier flow and ice discharging corridors.	Hardly likely to confuse.
Scarps	Marks the upper limit of abrupt steps on slopes.	Upper limit of steep slope greater than 60° in a rock face, often smooth (abraded) with channels orthogonal or semi-orthogonal to the slope.	Hillshade and slope maps from DEM, APs > GI.	Indicate glacial erosion or basal weakening on rocky slopes.	Possible confusion with fault scarps.
Ice-scoured bedrock	Large exposed bedrock or lightly vegetated surface with numerous small lake basins and glacial erosional features at every scale.	Gray to light pink colors when vegetation is present. Geological structures are present. Exposed surface has a rough and irregular texture and often contains attributes elongated in the direction of the ice direction (mounds).	BI > GI > PSI, APs, SI.	Evidence of large areas covered by ancient glaciers at basal melting point.	Possible underestimation of areal cover where bedrock is obscured by vegetation.
Whaleback	Features parallel to the ice flow direction, formed by glacial erosion. Form of elongated hills with similar slopes.	In the bedrock, it is observed as a change in the structure of the surface. Often with smooth surfaces from glacial abrasion. Often in groups. Difficult to distinguish individually at DEM scale.	APs >> Hillshade from DEM. Contours can guide > GI, SI (IR). Checked with Profile Tool when possible.	It shows the direction of ice flow and can indicate former glacier basal conditions.	In a DEM, it can be confused with a roche moutonnée. Confusion can be reduced when using APs.
Roche moutonnée	Features parallel to the ice flow direction, formed by glacial erosion. Elongated hill shape with asymmetrical slopes with a steep, plucked lee side.	In the bedrock, it is observed as a change in the structure of the surface. Often with smooth surfaces on the stoss side from glacial abrasion. The down glacier side (lee) has a steep slope and absent rocky material. Often in groups. Difficult to distinguish individually at DEM scale.	APs >> Hillshade from DEM. Contours can guide > GI, SI (IR). Checked with Profile Tool when possible.	It shows the ice flow direction, and can indicate former glacier basal conditions.	In a DEM, it can be confused with whalebacks. Confusion can be reduced when using APs.
Glacial drift	Irregular cover of unconsolidated material forming flat deposits	In high-resolution images, it is observed as accumulations of heterogeneously sized sediment. They often occur on the fringes of glaciers and / or affected by gravitational processes.	BI > GI > APs	Ancient ice presence	Possible confusion with mass movement deposits.
Kettle kame topography (KKT)	Large belts consisting of disorganized hills and hollows.	It is observed as smooth textured surfaces by sedimentary coverage with pockmarked appearance often containing a pond. KKT can contain ridges.	APs, GI, PSI, BI.	May indicate ice stagnation, wastage, ice-block meltout or results of GLOF events.	Possible confusion with Knock and Lochan topography when the rock surfaces are colonized by vegetation.
Moraine complex	Simple or multiple mounds of positive relief. It can be linear, curved, sinuous or toothed seen in planar view. Commonly showing an asymmetric transversal profile.	Changes in relief imprint shading. If the mound is colonized by vegetation, it may show color changes. On both sides of the relief, light and dark tones are opposed.	APs >> Hillshade maps from DEM when possible for resolution, GI, SI.	Marks a former stagnation position of a glacial lobe.	Possible confusion with modeled rock promontory when the latter is covered by vegetation. Ridges and shorelines could potentially be confused.
Outwash plains	Flat sediment accumulation on the valley floor. Commonly dissected by a twisted hydrographic pattern.	They are observed as flat surfaces at the bottom of the valleys, with gray tones due to the presence of sediments and soft texture, only disturbed by numerous sinuous channels commonly darker in tone.	APs, BI > GI, PSI > SI	Marks the main drainage routes for glacial meltwater and other glacier-fed streams.	Possible confusion with delta, alluvial plain or ice-contact deposits.
GLOF Deposits	Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) are a type of mass movement (e.g. mud flow) deposit with heterogeneous sediment size. Related spatially with contemporary glacier and/or breached moraines.	Discordant in color and texture with surrounding. Gray color is common. Position related to contemporary glaciers/lake/moraine is evident.	APs, BI, GI > PSI	Bursting of glacial lakes and consequent flooding of proglacial environment.	Difficult to confuse with other sedimentary deposits due to position and connectivity with morphogenetic agent.
Hydrological features
Contemporary glaciers	Bare ice, snow, debris and surface structures (crevasses and seracs).	White to light blue colors. Smooth to rough surface. Debris appears gray to black. Abrupt transition with other terrain.	Is clear in all data. Limits improve with resolution.	Current icefield discharge route.	Snow/debris cover boundary difficult to decipher, otherwise not difficult to identify.
Rivers and streams	Channels of water draining a valley.	Colors vary from blue to black, with sharp boundaries with surrounding terrain (5); white in AP is also possible.	BI, GI > APs, PSI > SI	Indicate contemporary drainage routes and may be sourced from modern glaciers.	Possible to confuse with narrow channels without contemporary drainage.
Meltwater channels	Channels often not contain current drainage. Channels can follow or cut along local slopes. On steep slopes are straight.	Well-defined edges and steep boundaries with the surrounding terrain. Shadowing due to change in height or relative relief. The bottom of the channel can present colors different from those of the surroundings. Generally sinuous in low gradient terrain and with snow/water when are close to active glaciers.	APs, BI, GI > PSI	They indicate high volumes of melt water production. They can indicate the position of old ice margins especially when seen in association with moraines or outwash plains sandur.	Possible to confuse with contemporary drainage.
Water bodies	Freshwater bodies within enclosed basins.	Blue, black or white in color imagery, typically elliptical o rounded in shape. Black and clearly observed in infrared SI images (bodies >800 m^2). Sharp boundaries with terrain.	BI, APs > GI, PSI, SI	Impeded drainage. Can result from rock basins formed by glacial over deepening. Useful to recognize kettle and kame topography.	Areas in the shadow of high relative relief. Size are very variable but is difficult to confuse with other landforms.
Non-glacial geomorphology
Marine terraces	Rocky promontory with flat surfaces commonly close to and parallel to current shore line. In some sectors they may be limited by cliffs	In DEM and APs are flat rocky surfaces often interrupted by fractures. In satellite images, natural color, are commonly reflective (rocky) and gray in color. Usually surrounded by water and parallel to shore line.	APs, BI, GI > PSI, SI > hillshade from DEM	Could be used to estimate glacial isostatic rebound rates and sea level variations.	Possible to confuse with flat bedrock surfaces scoured by glacier ice.
Aluvial deposits (fan, delta and plains)	Landforms typically feed by streams. Fans are sub-horizontal fan shaped on valley sides. Plains are sub-horizontal deposits filling valley bottom and deltas and occur in contact with water bodies.	Accumulation with abrupt limits with surrounding terrain due to changes in the vegetation cover. Commonly with patterns of braided streams on the surface. Gray or green colors for forest coverage are common. Shape allows to distinguish between fan / delta and plains. Profiles on GE or views on APs allow seeing longitudinal profile.	APs, GE Boundaries also on BI, PSI.	Reworking of unconsolidated material by contemporary fluvial channels and streams.	Possible to misinterpret as fossil delta or ice contact deposit or with outwash plains.
Landslides (falls and flows)	Sedimentary deposits not related to continuous water runoff or ice. Falls typically form irregular accumulations with heterogeneous sediment size. When related to channels are fan shape.	Accumulations with diffuse contacts in case of falls, sometimes gradual. Differences in texture respect to surrounding in both falls and flow are clear. Observed better in colored high-resolution images as spotted texture (falls).	APs, GE Boundaries also on BI, PSI.	May indicate rework of unconsolidated material deposited on unstable slopes	It is possible to misinterpret falls as glacial drift and flows as alluvial deposits.
Other sedimentary deposits	Deposits related to water bodies. Marginal lake and beach. Peat bogs are also included	Flat surfaces next to water bodies and sharp limit with surrounding, are soft in texture and gray to pale rose in color.	BI, GE, APs, PSI	Sedimentary structural and geochronological studies on sediments	Possible confusion with alluvial plains.
Geological elements
Geological contact	Plane representing the surface limiting two different types of rocks. From surface, it is observed as a line.	In the study area and available images, the granitoids show a clear whitish color and are roughly textured, contrasting with the dark gray colors and softer texture of the older mafic rocks.	BI, GE, APs, PSI + terrain observation	Lithology can exert control in glacial landform distribution.	Possible to confuse with changes in surfaces rock characteristics due to other factors such as surface erosion or sediment deposits.

Table and definitions have been extracted and modified from Glasser and Jansson (2008), Glasser et al. (2005), Darvill et al. (2014), Davies and Glasser (2012) and Izagirre et al. (2018). Preferred recognition tool acronyms are DEM: Alos Palsar Digital Elevation Model, GI: Google Earth Images (GE-v7.0), BI, Bing Satellite Images; PSI, Planet Satellite Images; SI, Sentinel 2 Satellite Images and APs represent traditional aerial pair stereographic analysis.

Figure 5. Bing Satellite Image (2019) over ALOS PALSAR DEM view in 3D, east of Seno Glaciar. The terminus of glacier 007 is at ∼160 m a.s.l. (DEM elevation). Glacial meltwater is actively flowing 600 m down valley before producing a well-developed outwash plane. Northeast of Glacier 007, a frozen lake is at ∼485 m a.s.l. and a GLOF deposit is located downhill. Scoured bedrock is observed as gray polished surfaces in the whole area.

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Digital elevation model over a very high-quality image from Bing Satellite Image, indicating a GLOF deposit downstream from a frozen lake in the upper part of the mountain, and an outwash plain 600 m downstream from the Glacier 007. Long Description: Digital elevation model over a very high-quality image from Bing Satellite Image showing a mountainous relief with steep slopes and grayish rocky outcrops; the base is limited by an extension to the East of Seno Glaciar and the summits are covered with snow. North points to the left with an inclination of about 30° downwards. A Frozen Lake is indicated in the upper left part of the image, Glacier 007 in the upper right part descending towards the viewer, a GLOF deposit in the bottom-left quadrant near the East extension of Seno Glaciar, and an outwash plain in the bottom-right quadrant, 600 m downstream of Glacier 007.

Figure 6. Examples of depositional landforms. (a) High-resolution GI image north of Seno Northbrook showing spotted deposits. (b) PI image showing same site as (a) with area of kettle kame topography delimited (full line). (c) Hillshade from DEM ALOS PALSAR illuminated from 45°, south–west GCN (see Figure 2 for location). (d) Mapping output of (c) site. Moraine area indicated with purple hollow polygons, respective moraine crests in black lines. More than one crest inside a polygon indicates a moraine complex. Lakes in blue and glacier margins in stippled white line (see Table S1).

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(a) High-resolution Google image showing a mountainous relief in dark brown tones, partially covered by snow from the NW–SE diagonal of the image frame to the North. (b) Image from (a) interpreted, where a kettle kame topography has been delimited with an irregular polygon. There is an auxiliary image showing an enlarged view of the southwest part of the landform. (c) Hillshade model of the sector between Gran Campo Nevado and Seno Northbrook. The relief color changes with elevation, from light green tones at sea level to brownish (∼600 m a.s.l.) and gray tones in the higher sectors (∼1000 m a.s.l.). (d) Image from (c) interpreted, indicating the distribution of three glaciers at the foot of the Gran Campo Nevado. In the margins of glaciers are located proglacial lakes limited by moraine areas. Two moraines border to the southwest with the Seno Northbrook. (d) Long Description: Image from (c) interpreted, where polygons have been drawn to indicate the distribution of Seno Northbrook (light blue-fill), five lakes (blue-fill; three of which are proglacial lakes), Moraine area (2 transparent polygons with purple borders and moraine ridges indicated by black lines) and the glacier margins (stippled white lines). From top to bottom the glaciers are identified with codes 011, 012 and 014. Streamlined landforms are indicated by a continuous blue line in the SW of the study area.

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Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the Glasgow University online repository at the following link: https://dx.doi.org/10.5525/gla.researchdata.1384. The primary data has the following license: CC-BY-SA. See supplemental materials for further information.