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Science

Extremely fast Holocene coastal landscape evolution in the Kachchh Upland (NW India): Clues from a multidisciplinary review

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Article: 2167617 | Received 13 Aug 2022, Accepted 05 Jan 2023, Published online: 21 Mar 2023

Figures & data

Figure 1. Seismic events Mw > 5 from 1819 to 2006 with principal stress directions in the Kachchh basin.

Geographical representation of the whole region, from the Great Rann of Kachchh in the north to the southernmost coast bathed by the Arabian Sea. Long Description: The main east-west thrust faults and other undefined faults are drawn in the continental area of Kachchh, showing a N-S development of over 150 km and an east-west length of almost 250 km. From north to south are Nagar Parkar Fault, Allah Bund Fault, Island Belt Fault, North Wagad Fault, Kachchh mainland Fault, South Wagad Fault, Vigodi Fault, and Katrol Hill Fault. The main stress directions indicate north-south compressive features, with GNSS velocities of about 1 ± 0.4 mm/yr.
Figure 1. Seismic events Mw > 5 from 1819 to 2006 with principal stress directions in the Kachchh basin.

Figure 2. Harrapan archaeological sites and paleo-shoreline in the Holocene period. The dotted black line represents the shoreline proposed by Siveright (1907). The white dotted line represents the CitationGaur and Vora (1999) shoreline deciphered from the positioning of the Harrapan sites during the Middle to Late Holocene. Present-day tidal incursion limits in Kachchh have been derived from the MNDWI indices from LANDSAT-8 data (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/.).

Between Pakistan and the Indus Delta to the north and northwest (top of the figure) and the Arabian Sea and Saurashtra (NW-India) to the south-west, south, and south-east (lower), the Kachchh area is represented by the archaeological and geographical elements.
Figure 2. Harrapan archaeological sites and paleo-shoreline in the Holocene period. The dotted black line represents the shoreline proposed by Siveright (1907). The white dotted line represents the CitationGaur and Vora (1999) shoreline deciphered from the positioning of the Harrapan sites during the Middle to Late Holocene. Present-day tidal incursion limits in Kachchh have been derived from the MNDWI indices from LANDSAT-8 data (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/.).

Figure 3. (a) Locations of the literature study area around the Kachchh basin. (b) Sea level curve of the W-India. Colour-coded triangles show age constraints collected from the literature.

Two boxes occur. (a) at the left and b at the right. Fig. 3a. Geographical representation of the Kachchh and Saurashtra regions. (b) Sea level evolution depicted in a Cartesian diagram (depth on the Y-axis, time on the X-axis), from about –100 m (14 Kyr) to + 2-4 m (from 6 to 2 Kyr) to the current 0 m.
Figure 3. (a) Locations of the literature study area around the Kachchh basin. (b) Sea level curve of the W-India. Colour-coded triangles show age constraints collected from the literature.

Figure 4. The methodology was organized as follows: high-resolution satellite mapping, digitization of historical maps and archaeological sites, validation through field surveys, and identification of markers for the evolution of landforms.

Four boxes occur, proposing the steps followed, which include (a) remote sensing, (b) field surveys, (c) paleoshoreline extraction, and (d) landform evolution mapping.
Figure 4. The methodology was organized as follows: high-resolution satellite mapping, digitization of historical maps and archaeological sites, validation through field surveys, and identification of markers for the evolution of landforms.

Figure 5. Landforms in the KU. (a) panoramic view of Kaswali river, (b) Knickpoint in the Lothia river, (c) degraded fault scarp near Lodai, (d) syncline depression between the younger anticline domes in the eastern extremity of NHR, (e) multiple terrace levels of Kaila river, (f) hanging pediment near Khari river, (g) depleted mangroves near the toe of the Lodai fan, and (h) small canyon in the Habo dome carved by a seasonal river.

Eight photos of the most representative landforms of the area studied, arranged on four levels: two at the top (i and ii), one below (iii and iv), two further down (v and vi), and three in the lower level (vii, viii and ix).
Figure 5. Landforms in the KU. (a) panoramic view of Kaswali river, (b) Knickpoint in the Lothia river, (c) degraded fault scarp near Lodai, (d) syncline depression between the younger anticline domes in the eastern extremity of NHR, (e) multiple terrace levels of Kaila river, (f) hanging pediment near Khari river, (g) depleted mangroves near the toe of the Lodai fan, and (h) small canyon in the Habo dome carved by a seasonal river.

Figure 6. The transverse and longitudinal swath profiles depicting the topographic relief distribution along and across the NHR.

Five boxes are present. In the largest, top left, the Kachchh region is represented by the location of the swath profiles. The three swath profiles, approximately N-S and transversal to the ancient coastline, are shown in three smaller boxes on the right and arranged from top to bottom. The roughly E-W swath profile is displayed in the lowermost box, parallel to the ancient coastline.
Figure 6. The transverse and longitudinal swath profiles depicting the topographic relief distribution along and across the NHR.

Figure 7. Swath-section, along the X-X’ swath profile shown in , depicting the hypocenters from the revised literature. Circles represent the hypocenters of seismic events in the Kachchh Basin collected in a 40 km width swath and plotted along the cross-section. The colour code represents the distance from the swath baseline, and the circle's size represents the event's magnitude.

The cross-section is represented in a Cartesian diagram, where the depth is on the Y-axis, and the distance is on the X-axis. The circles indicating the hypocenters of earthquakes are concentrated in the easternmost sector of the studied area.
Figure 7. Swath-section, along the X-X’ swath profile shown in Fig. 5, depicting the hypocenters from the revised literature. Circles represent the hypocenters of seismic events in the Kachchh Basin collected in a 40 km width swath and plotted along the cross-section. The colour code represents the distance from the swath baseline, and the circle's size represents the event's magnitude.
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