A systematic review of risk factors associated with road traffic crashes and injuries among commercial motorcycle drivers

Figures & data

Table 1. Characteristics of included studies n = 33.

Author by year of publication	Study setting	Study design	Sample size	Age mean (S.D.) ± Range	Sex	Data source	Driver type	Risk factors studied
Dagona, 1994	Nigeria (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	256	31.6 (9.8) years	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level, marital status) and drug use
Amoran et al., 2005	Nigeria (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	299	27.4 (7.4) years	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Road safety behaviour measured as a composite variable (helmet use, observance of road traffic signs, possessing a driver’s license)
Owoaje et al., 2005	Nigeria (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	299	27.4(7.4) years	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level, marital status), experience, licensure, alcohol use and visual impairment
Adogu et al., 2009	Nigeria (LMICs)	Longitudinal study	291	29.7 (7.4) years	99.3% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level, marital status)
Kieling et al., 2010	Brasil (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	101	Mean not reported, 19–30 years	95.0% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle delivery driver	Mental disorders (ADHD, substance use disorders, mood and anxiety disorders)
Da Silva et al., 2012	Brasil (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	750	29.5 (8.1) years	99.6% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle delivery driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level, marital status), experience, working conditions, behavioral (use of mobile phone, speeding and helmet use)
Amorim et al., 2012	Brasil (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	267	Mean not reported, 21–62 years	99.3% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Working conditions and health characteristics (working hours, fatigue, musculoskeletal complaints)
Arosanyin et al., 2013	Nigeria (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	334	30.6 (6.4) years	Not reported	Face to face interview and self-administered questionnaire	Motorcycle taxi driver	Behavioural (helmet use, possessing a driver’s license)
Achigbu and Fiebai 2013	Nigeria (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	615	38.1 (10.3) years	Not reported	Face to face interview and self-administered questionnaire	Motorcycle taxi driver	Visual status (Eyesight)
L. A. da Silva et al., 2013	Brasil (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	111	Not reported	Not reported	Not reported	Motorcycle taxi driver	Carboxyhemoglobin
Almeida et al., 2016	Brasil (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	420	Not reported	99.2% male	Not reported	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level), experience, working hours
Oliveira et al., 2015	Brasil (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	131	31 (8.6) years	95.4% male	Not reported	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, marital status, educational level) work-related (working hours)
Palacios, 2015	Colombia (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	435	34 years	96% male	Secondary data analysis	Motorcycle taxi & delivery driver	Psychosocial and substance use
Ayinde et al., 2018	Nigeria (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	508	33.5 (9.0) years	99.8% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Mental health disorders (substance use disorders, personality score, impulsiveness scale, visual acuity)
Tumwesigye, 2016	Uganda (LMICs)	Case control study	578	Mean not reported, 18–56 years	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic, Behavioral, Vehicular factors
Nguyen, 2018	Tanzania (LMICs)	Mixed methods (cross sectional design)	300	28 (7.1) years	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Safe driving habits as a composite score
Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019	Vietnam (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	602	25.7 (7.3) years	94.8% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, marital status, educational level), work-related (working hours), behaviour (speeding, mobile phone use)
Truong & Nguyen, 2019	Vietnam (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	362	29.2 years	97.3% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Cell-phone use
Zheng et al., 2019	China (UMICs)	Cross-sectional study	824	Mean not reported, 18–40 years	93.5% male	Self-administered questionnaire	Motorcycle delivery driver	Working conditions (working hours, shift, number of deliveries made)
Muni et al., 2019	Uganda (LMICs)	Longitudinal study	342	32.8 years	100% male	Computer assisted personal interview, SMS and telephone interview.	Motorcycle delivery driver	Safeboda status
Truong, Nguyen, et al. 2020	Vietnam (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	362	29.2 years	97.3% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, marital status, educational level), work-related (working hours), and fatigue
Truong, Tay, et al. 2020	Vietnam (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	362	29.2 years	97.3% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Body Mass Index
Nguyen-Phuoc, 2020	Vietnam (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	602	25.7 (7.3) years	94.8% male	Face to face interview and web based	Motorcycle taxi driver	Risky driving behaviour (mobile phone use, turn signal neglect, speeding, carry more than one passenger, smoking while driving, no helmet use, drink driving)
Konlan & Hayford, 2022	Ghana (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	114	30 years	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, marital status), alcohol consumption
Nickenig Vissoci et al., 2020	Rwanda (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	609	30 (6.4) years	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level, marital status), safety behaviour
Obadeji et al., 2020	Nigeria (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	456	31.9 (9.0) years	Not reported	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Psychosocial and substance use
Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021	Colombia (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	438	33.5 years	99.5% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Motorcycle Behavioural Questionnaire risk factors
Wankie et al., 2021	Cameroon (LMICs)	Cross-sectional study	557	28.7 years	100% male	Computer assisted personal interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level, marital status), smoking status, alcohol use, rider characteristics (daily income, motorcycle ownership, training time), experience
Pramesti & Widajati, 2021	Indonesia (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	110	Not reported	Not reported	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Work related (fatigue), negligence and compliance with use of protective gears
Sopoh et al., 2021	Benin (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	430	38 years	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Substance use (alcohol, tobacco and tramadol)
Kiwango et al., 2021	Tanzania (LMICs)	Case control study	564	Mean not reported, 18–48	100% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Alcohol and psychoactive drug use
Kitara & Ikoona, 2022	Uganda (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	200	Mean not reported, 10–49 years	98.5% male	Face to face interview	Motorcycle taxi driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level, marital status), alcohol use, rider characteristics (daily income, motorcycle ownership), experience
Ngari, 2020	Kenya (LMICs)	Longitudinal study	200	Mean not reported, 18–55 years	97.5% male	Face to face interview	Commercial MC driver	Sociodemographic (age, educational level, marital status), smoking status, alcohol use, rider characteristics (daily income, motorcycle ownership, training time), experience
Ayinde et al., 2018	Nigeria (LMICs)	Cross sectional study	508	33.5 years	99.8% male	Interview administered	Commercial MC driver	Mental health status
Nguyen, 2018	Tanzania (LMICs)	Mixed methods (cross sectional design)	300	28 years	100% male	Interview administered	Commercial MC driver	Safe driving habits

Table 3. Risk factors for Road Traffic Crashes and injuries of commercial motorcycle drivers based on the high-quality studies, n = 20.

Risk factor	Bivariate association	Multivariable association
Demographic factors
Young age	Association, direction not reported (Ayinde et al., 2018) + (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Tumwesigye, 2016) N.S + (Amorim et al., 2012), (Almeida et al., 2016) N.S – (Sopoh et al., 2021)	+ (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Nguyen, 2018), (Tumwesigye, 2016), (Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021), (Truong, Nguyen, et al. 2020) N.S – (Kitara & Ikoona, 2022)
Gender (male)		N.S + (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019)
High B.M.I.		+ (Truong, Nguyen, et al. 2020)
Socioeconomic factors
1. Low education level	Association, direction not (Ayinde et al., 2018) + (Almeida et al., 2016) N.S + (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Sopoh et al., 2021), (Tumwesigye, 2016) N.S – (Amorim et al., 2012)	+ (Almeida et al., 2016), (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019), (Ayinde et al., 2018), (Kitara & Ikoona, 2022)
2. MC riding experience	+ (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Tumwesigye, 2016) – (Sopoh et al., 2021), (Wankie et al., 2021) N.S + (Almeida et al., 2016), (Amorim et al., 2012)	+ (Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021), (Tumwesigye, 2016) – (Sopoh et al., 2021), (Wankie et al., 2021) N.S + (Nguyen, 2018), (Kitara & Ikoona, 2022), (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019)
Social factors
1. Marital/partner status	Association, direction not reported (Ayinde et al., 2018) – (Tumwesigye, 2016)	– (Kitara & Ikoona, 2022) N.S(Amorim et al., 2012), (Sopoh et al., 2021), (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019)
2. Dependents	Association, direction not reported (Ayinde et al., 2018) N.S (Amorim et al., 2012)	+ (Ayinde et al., 2018) N.S (Kitara & Ikoona, 2022)
Behavioural factors
1. Road safety knowledge or awareness	– (Tumwesigye, 2016)	– (Ayinde et al., 2018) N.S (Tumwesigye et al., 2016)
2. Speeding	+ (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Wankie et al., 2021)	+ (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021), (Wankie et al., 2021) N.S (Truong, Nguyen, et al. 2020)
3. Alcohol use,	Association, direction not reported, (Ayinde et al., 2018) + (Sopoh et al., 2021), (Tumwesigye et al., 2016), (Wankie et al., 2021) N.S + (Da Silva et al., 2012)	+ (Ayinde et al., 2018), (Sopoh et al., 2021), (Tumwesigye et al., 2016), (Kiwango et al., 2021), (Wankie et al., 2021) N.S + (Da Silva et al., 2012), N.S – (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2020)
4. Tobacco use	Association, direction not reported, (Ayinde et al., 2018) + (Wankie et al., 2021)	+ (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019), (Wankie et al., 2021) N.S + (Sopoh et al., 2021)
5. Use of cell phones (handheld)	+ (Da Silva et al., 2012)	+ (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019), (Truong & Nguyen, 2019), (Da Silva et al., 2012)
6. Non-helmet use/defective helmet	Association, direction not reported, (Ayinde et al., 2018) + (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Tumwesigye et al., 2016)	+ (Ayinde et al., 2018), (Nguyen, 2018) N.S + (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2020), (Da Silva et al., 2012)
Musculoskeletal issues	+ (Amorim et al., 2012)	+ (Amorim et al., 2012)
B.M.I.		+ (Truong, Tay, et al. 2020)
7. Risky driving behaviour (pass red light, carry two passengers or more, aggressive driving)	+ (Wankie et al., 2021)	+ (Zheng et al., 2019), (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2020), (Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021), (Wankie et al., 2021), (Nickenig Vissoci et al., 2020), (Muni et al., 2019)
8. Previous road traffic crash		+ (Sopoh et al., 2021)
9. Formal training-socioeconomic	Association, direction not reported, (Ayinde et al., 2018) – (Tumwesigye et al., 2016)
Psychological factors
1. Mental disorders (ADHD,		+ (Kieling et al., 2010)
2. fatigue	N.S + (Da Silva et al., 2012)	+ (Zheng et al., 2019) N.S + (Da Silva et al., 2012)
Environmental factors
1. Work conditions (working hours, few days to rest, daily distance traveled)	+,(Tumwesigye et al., 2016), (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019) N.S + (Almeida et al., 2016), (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Amorim et al., 2012)	+ (Tumwesigye et al., 2016), (Zheng et al., 2019) N.S + (Almeida et al., 2016), (Nguyen, 2018), (Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021)
2. alternation of work shifts, night shift	+ (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Wankie et al., 2021)	+ (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Wankie et al., 2021) - (Truong & Nguyen, 2019)
3. payment by performance, time pressure, orders	+ (Da Silva et al., 2012) N.S + (Amorim et al., 2012)	+ (Zheng et al., 2019)
4. Higher earnings	Association, direction not reported, (Ayinde et al., 2018) + (Tumwesigye et al., 2016) N.S + (Amorim et al., 2012), (Sopoh et al., 2021)	+ (Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021), (Sopoh et al., 2021) – (Kitara & Ikoona, 2022) N.S + (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019)
5. Full time	+ (Sopoh et al., 2021)	+ (Truong, 2019) – (Kitara & Ikoona, 2022), N.S + (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019)
6. Type of use (passengers)		– (Truong & Nguyen, 2019)
7. Type of use (delivery)		+ (Truong & Nguyen, 2019)
8. Potholes, mud		+ (Wankie et al., 2021)
9. Ownership	– (Tumwesigye et al., 2016)	– (Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021) N.S + (Truong & Nguyen, 2019), (Kitara & Ikoona, 2022)
Vehicular factors
1. Low engine capacity	+ (Tumwesigye et al., 2016)	+ (Tumwesigye et al., 2016)

Figure 1. Flow chart of search results (adapted from PRISMA 2019 Flow Diagram).

Table 2. Summary of results of quality assessment using Modified Newcastle Ottawa scale for cross sectional, case control and cohort studies.

Category	No. of studies	References
Cross sectional studies	N = 28
Overall quality rating
High (7 points)	17	(Kieling et al., 2010), (Da Silva et al., 2012), (Amorim et al., 2012), (Almeida et al., 2016), (Ayinde et al., 2018), (Nguyen, 2018), (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2019), (Truong & Nguyen, 2019), (Zheng et al., 2019), (Truong, Nguyen, et al. 2020), (Truong, Tay, et al. 2020), (Nguyen-Phuoc, 2020), (Nickenig Vissoci et al., 2020), (Ospina-Mateus et al., 2021), (Wankie et al., 2021), (Sopoh et al., 2021), (Kitara & Karlsson, 2020)
Medium/low (<7 points)	11	(Owoaje et al., 2005), (Arosanyin et al., 2013), (Achigbu and Fiebai, 2013), (Santana Palacios, 2015), (Konlan & Hayford, 2022), (Obadeji et al., 2020), (Pramesti & Widajati, 2021), (Oliveira et al., 2015), (L. A. da Silva et al., 2013), (Amoran et al., 2005), (Dagona, 1994)
Case control studies	N = 2
Overall quality rating
High (7 points)	2	(Kiwango et al., 2021), (Tumwesigye et al., 2016)
Medium/low (<7 points)	0
Cohort studies	N = 3
Overall quality rating
High (7 points)	1	(Muni et al., 2019)
Medium/low (<7 points)	2	(Ngari, 2020), (Adogu et al., 2009)

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