Tenure diversity and dependent causation in the effects of regional integration on land use: evaluating the evolutionary theory of land rights in Acre, Brazil

Figures & data

Table 1. Land tenure diversity in Acre, Brazil, 2006.

Land tenure category^a	Number of areas	Land area (Ha)
Protected areas (state management)
National parks	1	784,079
Ecological stations	1	84,387
State parks	1	695,303
Total	3	1,563,769
Sustainable use areas (concession areas)
Environmental protection areas	3	36,137
Areas of ecological interest	1	2576
Extractive reserves	5	2,673,692
National forests	7	831,662
Total	16	3,544,067
Indigenous Territories (Tribal Communal Areas)	30	2,390,112
Settlement Projects (Private Individual Lands)^b
Agricultural (colonization) projects	72	1,430,557
Agro-extractive projects	11	286,395
Sustainable development projects	6	148,670
Agroforestry projects	3	86,183
Agroforestry poles	12	3412
Peri-urban projects (Projetos Casulos)	3	651
Total	107	1,955,870
Grand total^c	156	9,453,818

^aSource: Governo do Acre (2006: 101–119).

^bAll values refer to official values. Some have incurred adjustments.

^cExcludes other private lands such as cattle ranches and lands still being demarcated or designated in a tenure category.

Figure 1. Map of households and communities visited in lands with distinct tenure rules along the Inter-Oceanic Highway in Eastern Acre, Brazil, 2008–2009.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for tenure formalization and its consequences, in agricultural projects and agro-extractive projects, Acre, Brazil, 2009.

Indicator	Agricultural projects	Agro-extractive projects	Total	F-test
Weighted n	208	46	254	N/A
Formalization
Preliminary title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)	0.37	0.67	0.43	22.57**
Definitive title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)	0.54	0.20	0.48	14.43**
Market transactions
Formal bank credit (0 = No, 1 = Yes)	0.27	0.22	0.26	0.56
Land rentals to others (0 = No, 1 = Yes)	0.13	0.05	0.11	2.36
Land rentals from others (0 = No, 1 = Yes)	0.07	0.11	0.08	0.41
Plans to sell (0 = No, 1 = Yes)	0.15	0.04	0.13	1.11
Conflict
Conflicts, last 12 months (0 = No, 1 = Yes)	0.03	0.08	0.04	2.24
Natural resource management
Kg Castanha nut harvest, 2008	113.74	600.69	201.12	15.27**
Ln kg Castanha nut harvest, 2008	1.05	3.24	1.45	27.99**
Ha under cattle pasture	21.91	22.89	22.09	0.44
Ln ha under cattle pasture	2.38	2.61	2.42	1.09**
Ha under tree crops	0.58	0.52	0.57	0.01
Ln ha under tree crops	0.17	0.28	0.20	2.10

*p <0.15; **p <0.05; ***p <0.01.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics for determinants of tenure formalization and its consequences, in agricultural projects and agro-extractive projects, Acre, Brazil, 2009.

Indicator	Agricultural projects	Agro-extractive projects	Total	F-test
ETLR drivers
Travel time to nearest market (min)	87.35	102.72	90.30	1.72
Travel time to state capital (min)	168.34	234.34	181.03	21.25**
Community net migration (In − Out)/Families × 100)	−0.62	0.42	−0.43	0.33
Household capitals and capabilities
Land
Ha private land area	65.74	180.38	86.96	32.86**
Ln ha private land area	3.51	4.94	3.77	53.37**
Labor/Dependency
Number of adults	2.71	2.72	2.72	0.00
Number of children	1.12	1.37	1.17	1.45
Number of elderly	0.24	0.22	0.23	0.28
Days of hired labor paid	25.72	21.01	24.87	0.31
Ln days of hired labor paid	1.84	1.97	1.86	0.20
Cultural capital
Region of birth (0 = Other, 1 = Amazon)	0.73	0.82	0.75	1.72
Years of residence	15.82	16.39	15.92	0.80
Human capital
Place of birth (0 = Rural, 1 = Urban)	0.22	0.10	0.20	3.27***
Years of education completed	5.01	4.02	4.83	2.32***
Social capital
Number of absent family members	1.66	1.24	1.58	1.32
Types of organizational memberships	1.17	1.36	1.21	1.71

*p <0.15; **p <0.05; ***p <0.01.

Table 4. Ordered logit models of formalization (Land Titles), Households in agricultural projects and agro-extractive projects, Acre, Brazil, 2009.

	Base Model	Interactions Model
Pseudo-R^2	0.38	0.40
n	196	196
Model df	16	18
ETLR drivers
Travel time to nearest market (min)	−0.031 (0.012)**	−0.041 (0.012)**
Travel time to state capital (min)	0.029 (0.012)*	0.041 (0.013)**
Community net migration
(In − Out)/Families × 100)	0.148 (0.073)*	0.196 (0.079)*
Household capitals and capabilities
Land
Tenure type (0 = AP, 1 = PAE)	−4.587 (1.558)**	−1.223 (1.954)
Ln ha private land area	0.633 (0.365)***	0.512 (0.368)
Labor/Dependency
Number of adults	2.290 (0.830)**	2.158 (0.817)**
Adults squared	−0.342 (0.127)**	−0.321 (0.128)*
Number of children	0.034 (0.114)	0.044 (0.115)
Number of elderly	1.117 (0.401)**	1.163 (0.361)**
Ln days of hired labor paid	0.238 (0.022)**	0.223 (0.034)**
Cultural capital
Region of birth (0 = Other, 1 = Amazon)	0.420 (0.403)	0.413 (0.303)
Years of residence	0.019 (0.011)***	0.018 (0.014)
Human capital
Place of birth (0 = Rural, 1 = Urban)	0.733 (0.348)*	0.911 (0.329)**
Years of education completed	0.026 (0.066)	0.017 (0.067)
Social capital
Number of absent family members	0.349 (0.102)**	0.384 (0.095)**
Types of organizational memberships	−0.230 (0.324)	−0.212 (0.310)
Interactions
Travel time to nearest market × PAE		0.016 (0.004)**
Travel time to state capital × PAE		−0.023 (0.008)**
Cut points
1	3.347 (1.296)	3.830 (1.302)
2	9.017 (2.102	9.590 (2.000)

*p <0.15; **p <0.05; ***p <0.01.

Standard errors are clustered by community and appear in parentheses after coefficients.

Table 5. Binary logit models of formal bank credit, households in agricultural projects and agro-extractive projects, Acre, Brazil, 2009.

	Base model	Formalization model	Formalization + interactions model 1	Formalization + interactions model 2
Pseudo-R^2	0.18	0.18	0.18	0.21
n	206	196	196	196
Model df	16	18	20	22
ETLR drivers
Travel time to nearest market (min)	0.999	0.999	1.003	1.012
	(0.003)	(0.004)	(0.071)	(0.010)
Travel time to state capital (min)	1.001	1.001	0.997	0.988
	(0.004)	(0.006)	(0.010)	(0.013)
Community net migration
(In − Out)/Families × 100)	0.969*	0.951*	0.941***	0.995
	(0.012)	(0.021)	(0.036)	(0.014)
Tenure type (0 = PA, 1 = PAE)	0.766	1.096	0.916	0.686***
	(0.264)	(0.587)	(0.778)	(0.176)
Formalization
Preliminary title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		1.918	1.880	1.471
		(2.713)	(2.688)	(2.841)
Definitive title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		2.518	2.534	0.252
		(3.900)	(3.903)	(0.322)
Interactions 1
Travel time to nearest market × PAE			0.992
			(0.007)
Travel time to state capital × PAE			1.004
			(0.007)
Interactions 2
Travel time to nearest market × provisional title				0.990
				(0.011)
Travel time to nearest market × definitive title				0.971**
				(0.010)
Travel time to state capital × provisional title				1.012
				(0.013)
Travel time to state capital × definitive title				1.030**
				(0.011)

*p <0.15; **p <0.05; ***p <0.01.

Standard errors are clustered by community and appear in parentheses after coefficients.

Coefficients for control variables for household capitals and capabilities are not shown but are available upon request.

Table 6. Tobit models of the castanha harvest, households in agricultural projects and agro-extractive projects, Acre, Brazil, 2009.

	Base model	Formalization + credit model	Formalization + credit + interactions model 1	Formalization + credit + interactions model 2
Pseudo-R^2	0.17	0.18	0.18	0.19
N	205	191	191	191
Model df	16	21	23	25
ETLR drivers
Travel time to nearest market (min)	0.035**	0.033*	−0.007	0.079
	(0.011)	(0.013)	(0.029)	(0.093)
Travel time to state capital (min)	−0.046**	−0.043**	−0.001	−0.110
	(0.012)	(0.014)	(0.029)	(0.086)
Community net migration
(In − Out)/Families × 100)	−0.344*	−0.260***	−0.085	−0.509*
	(0.137)	(0.136)	(0.164)	(0.226)
Tenure type (0 = PA, 1 = PAE)	6.016**	4.544*	8.966*	8.481**
	(2.042)	(2.189)	(4.038)	(3.179)
Formalization
Preliminary title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		−3.798***	−3.307	−7.872
		(2.334)	(2.299)	(6.878)
Definitive title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		−2.944	−3.636	−1.309
		(2.826)	(2.780)	(7.589)
Market engagement
Formal bank credit in 2008 (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		1.099	1.065	1.143
		(1.416)	(1.389)	(1.381)
Land rentals to others (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		−1.634	−1.624	−1.770
		(1.999)	(2.018)	(1.995)
Land rentals from others (0 = No, 1 = Yes)
		−0.976	−1.296	−1.212
		(1.932)	(1.959)	(1.997)
Interactions 1
Travel time to nearest market × PAE			0.043
			(0.030)
Travel time to state capital × PAE			−0.047***
			(0.030)
Interactions 2
Travel time to nearest market × provisional title				−0.053
				(0.092)
Travel time to nearest market × definitive title				0.041
				(0.094)
Travel time to state capital × provisional title				0.064
				(0.084)
Travel time to state capital × definitive title				0.007
				(0.083)

*p <0.15; **p <0.05; ***p <0.01.

Standard errors appear in parentheses below coefficients.

Coefficients for control variables for household capitals and capabilities are not shown but are available upon request.

Table 7. Weighted least squares models of cattle pasture, households in agricultural projects and agro-extractive projects, Acre, Brazil, 2009.

	Base model	Formalization + credit model	Formalization + credit + interactions 1 model	Formalization + credit + interactions 2 model
R^2	0.68	0.71	0.73	0.74
N	198	184	184	184
Model df	16	21	23	25
ETLR Drivers
Travel time to nearest market (min)	−0.007*	−0.003***	0.001	−0.010***
	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.001)	(0.005)
Travel time to state capital (min)	0.005**	0.001	−0.002	0.011*
	(0.001)	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.004)
Community net migration
(In − Out)/Families × 100)	0.018*	−0.003	−0.015	0.017***
	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.011)	(0.008)
Tenure type (0 = AP, 1 = PAE)	−1.184**	−0.678***	−1.030***	−0.934**
	(0.169)	(0.330)	(0.550)	(0.126)
Formalization
Preliminary title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.208	0.120	0.804**
		(0.183)	(0.205)	(0.071)
Definitive title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.663*	0.656**	0.893**
		(0.180)	(0.134)	(0.095)
Market engagement
Formal bank credit in 2008 (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.257***	0.234***	0.180
		(0.100)	(0.106)	(0.118)
Land rentals to others (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.376*	0.323*	0.301***
		(0.103)	(0.104)	(0.136)
Land rentals from others (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.251	0.244	0.223
		(0.166)	(0.177)	(0.165)
Interactions 1
Travel time to nearest market × PAE			−0.008**
			(0.001)
Travel time to state capital × PAE			0.005***
			(0.002)
Interactions 2
Travel time to nearest market × provisional title				0.008
				(0.006)
Travel time to nearest market × definitive title				−0.001
				(0.007)
Travel time to state capital × provisional title				−0.010***
				(0.004)
Travel time to state capital × definitive title				−0.004
				(0.005)

*p <0.15; **p <0.05; ***p <0.01.

Standard errors are clustered by community and appear in parentheses after coefficients.

Coefficients for control variables for household capitals and capabilities are not shown but are available upon request.

Table 8. Weighted least squares models of tree crops, households in agricultural projects and agro-extractive projects, Acre, Brazil, 2009.

	Base model	Formalization + credit model	Formalization + credit + interactions 1 model	Formalization + credit + interactions 2 model
R^2	0.16	0.17	0.19	0.18
n	197	184	184	184
Model df	16	21	23	25
ETLR drivers
Travel time to nearest market (min)	0.002***	0.001***	0.002	0.000
	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Travel time to state capital (min)	−0.002***	−0.001***	−0.002	−0.001
	(0.001)	(0.001)	(0.002)	(0.002)
Community net migration
(In − Out)/Families × 100)	0.006*	0.008***	0.005	0.007
	(0.002)	(0.003)	(0.004)	(0.004)
Tenure type (0 = AP, 1 = PAE)	0.027	−0.069	−0.096	−0.076
	(0.119)	(0.181)	(0.308)	(0.196)
Formalization
Preliminary title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.168***	0.147	0.111
		(0.090)	(0.119)	(0.160)
Definitive title (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.053	0.051	0.052
		(0.105)	(0.099)	(0.110)
Market engagement
Formal bank credit in 2008 (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		−0.026	−0.034	−0.024
		(0.098)	(0.104)	(0.093)
Land rentals to others (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.097***	0.078	0.091
		(0.037)	(0.051)	(0.042)***
Land rentals from others (0 = No, 1 = Yes)		0.070	0.064	0.065
		(0.139)	(0.136)	(0.158)
Interactions 1
Travel time to nearest market × PAE			−0.002
			(0.002)
Travel time to state capital × PAE			0.001
			(0.002)
Interactions 2
Travel time to nearest market × provisional title				0.001
				(0.002)
Travel time to nearest market × definitive title				0.001
				(0.002)
Travel time to state capital × provisional title				−0.000
				(0.002)
Travel time to state capital × definitive title				−0.001
				(0.002)

*p <0.15; **p <0.05; ***p <0.01.

Standard errors are clustered by community and appear in parentheses after coefficients.

Coefficients for control variables for household capitals and capabilities are not shown but are available upon request.

Governo do Estado do Acre. (2006). Zoneamento ecológico-econômico, Fase II. Rio Branco: Governo do Estado do Acre.

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