Community-based forest management institutions in Cameroon: dynamics and compliance determinants

Figures & data

Figure 1. Location of the Santchou and Kilum-Ijim Reserves.

Table 1. Selected villages in the target protected areas.

s/n	Village	No. of HHs	HHs sampled
Santchou	Mbokou	55	12
	Mogot	85	24
	Mokot	102	39
Kilum-Ijim	Elak	250	52
	Manchok	123	20
	Mbam	40	3
Total		655	150

Table 2. Individual and household characteristics.

Variables	(1)	(2)
	Mean	Std. Dev.
Age of individual	50.82	16.7
Household size	14	8.07
Individual is male	0.71	0.46
Has at least secondary education	0.25	0.43
Individual is married	0.19	0.39
Main occupation not agriculture	0.45	0.50
Individual is a migrant	0.40	0.49
Individual is in community leadership	0.32	0.47
Individual is a member	0.69	0.47
Actor in forest management	0.80	0.40
Longevity in area (> 5 years)	0.68	0.47
Proximity to reserves (<3 km)	0.63	0.49
Compliance to institutions	0.60	0.49
Evolution of institutions	0.86	0.35

Note: The mean compliance, evolution perception and socioeconomic and demographic characteristics are presented in Column (1) and standard deviations in Column (2).

Table 3. Pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial institutions in the Kilum-Ijim Landscape.

Institutions	Specific rules	Implications
	Structures
Traditional council Bah Tie (landlord),	Made decisions on forest use, access and management
	Enforced management decisions to achieve/implement effective forest governance.	Highly regulated forest access, use and management based on perceptions and spiritual punishment.
Secret societies
Kwifon”/”fon”	The Kwifon was the governing or ruling council in the Kilum-Ijim forest landscape.	This checked against conflicts linked to the protected area exploitation.
	It had operational rights and made collective choice actions to include access, withdrawal rights and management, exclusions and alienations rights, respectively. Defaulters were duly sanctioned by the Kwifon society. It also passed judgments in cases of conflicts.
Cultural groups ‘manjong/njong’‘chong’ ‘fembien’ ‘nfuh’‘samba’	-Marking/tracing of fire path at edges of farms bordering the forest	Checked against protected area degradation due to bush
	-Forbid the Ankara system of farming (characterized by burning) near the forest
	-supported bushfire controls by assisting to put out the fire and also sensitizing the villagers on bush fires.	fires
Village management committees	Ensured compliance to endogenous rules;
	Promoted and implemented forest and development issues in the communities	Improved conservation through respect for ‘law day’.
	Processes (rules)
Taboo	People were prohibited access in to the Fon’s hunting ground. Sacred forests were spiritual and trespassing was prohibited except for major ceremonies.	Such areas serve as biodiversity bit spots
Beliefs	The belief in rain-making through ritual ceremonies.	This assured forest regeneration.
Norms	Pregnant women were prohibited to kill anything in bloody form.	This also reduced pressure on forest resources, especially animals.
Customs	Respect for traditional off-days (‘country Sunday’),	Less expansion of farmlands into protected areas
Colonial institutions in Kilum-Ijim landscape
Structures
Traditional councils (in villages around the protected area).	They served as socializing institutions, preserving culture and tradition.	Conscientisation on protected area maintenance.
Secret societies
Kwifon”/”fon”	-The kwifon remained the governing council and facilitated the rule of the fon. It also judged and resolved conflicts in the Kilum-Ijim landscape. It applied decisions/regulations on the operational use of the landscape.	This assured order in protected area use practices.
Cultural groups
‘manjong/njong’‘chong’ ‘fembien’ ‘nfuh’	These structures executed orders from the palace. They were charged with the responsibility of spreading information from the palace especially on forest/environmental-related activities.	The forest was regarded as the abode of the gods. It was highly protected for spiritual and livelihood reasons.
Village committees	Promoted peace and collective in several aspects including protected the landscape	Ensured the respect of traditional rules
	Processes
Taboo	-People were prohibited access in to Fons hunting ground.	It served as habitats for animals and trees were protected.
	-People were prohibited from stealing hives and rat moles from people’s traps.
	-Sacred forests were used for ancestral rites and to enthrone the fons; not accessible for exploitation.
Beliefs	The belief in rain-making through ritual ceremonies	Forest regeneration was assured.
Norms	Pregnant women were prohibited to kill anything in bloody form. No night keeps in the forest.	It limited the potential for increasing overexploitation of animal species in the forest.
Customs	Respect for traditional off-days (‘country Sunday’),	Less expansion of farmlands into protected areas.
	Post-colonial institutions in Kilum-Ijim
Institutions	Specific rules	Implications
Traditional councils’ village-specific traditional councils still exist	Enforces management rules from the palace at the village level. Reports issues of forest irregularities to the Kwifon/Fon.	Protection of biodiversity, especially the banermanns turaco.
Secret societies	Enforces rules relating to tree felling; only dry trees are allowed to be cut in the forest. Defaulters are duly sanctioned by the Kwifon society. It also judges issues related to peace and unity in the Kilum-Ijim landscape	This regulates the harvesting of tree species in the landscape. It also preserves certain bee-loving trees.
Cultural groups: ‘manjong/njong’‘chong’ ‘fembien’ ‘nfuh’	Fights against forest fires and circulates information accordingly.	Reduces protected area degradation through bush fires and preserves bee hives.
Village management committees
(Mbai, chiiy, Emfvemii, Kedjem mawes, upper shinga, ijim, Bihkov, Juambum, Laikom, Ajung, Yatimuvco, Mbessa, Muteff, Abuh, Mbi, Anyafoma 5, Akeh 1 and Afua/djichami)	Each of these community institutions is in charge with the protection of the forest at various levels. The delegate and secretary have the responsibility of ensuring forest protection through constant monitoring with the assistance of CAMGEW.	Improvement in the monitoring of protected area encroachment and degradation.
Forest exploiters, Bee farmers union, carvers union.	Design operation rules and work towards respecting them.	Controlled forest activities and limited overexploitation of the forest.
	Processes
Taboo	People were prohibited access in to Fons hunting ground. People are prohibited from stealing hives, rat moles from people’s traps.	This reduces pressure on the protected area.
Beliefs	The belief in rain-making through ritual ceremonies.	Increase forest growth and productivity.
Norms	Pregnant women are prohibited to kill anything in bloody form.	Limited hunting activities.
Customs	Respect for traditional off-days (‘country Sunday’)	This reduces farm expansion into the protected area.

Table 4. Pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial institutions in the Santchou Landscape.

Institutions	Specific rules	Implications
	Structures
Traditional councils included(‘ndahkem’, ‘akeum’,	Enforcement of endogenous forest regulations such as the ensuring compliance for the traditional days	Checked the overuse of forest resources such as snakes and rat moles.
Secret societies ‘nfan’, afon”, ‘nguieur’, ‘ebwin-mwat’, ‘ekale’ ‘mboh’ ‘ntuku’, ‘nzock tong’, ‘musoh’.	-Protected the villages from harm, created fear in the minds and hearts of the people -Perform sacrifices in the villages and in the forest for the appeasement of the gods. -Education and maintenance of peace and village norms.	Enhanced preservation through the creation of sacred forests
Village management committee ‘nsoc’, ‘emumat’,	These structures monitored and controlled all forest products harvested. They regulated the exploitation of particular forest products.	Enhanced preservation through the creation of sacred forests
Cultural groups ‘malongei’,	Mobilized community members for consensus building with regard to rules and enforcement mechanisms in the community. Ensured compliance to the rights of exclusion from certain practices with regard to the forest.	Reduced overexploitation of protected areas resources, especially culturally forbidden animals
	Processes
Taboo	Trespass in secret forests by non-initiated community members was unacceptable and highly punishable. Such sites were operational only to members of the afon, nfan, etc. It was a taboo to kill animals in the forest	Hunting pressure was reduced
Beliefs	The belief in the existence of totems (totemism). Animals in the reserve were believed to represent humans.	By this belief, no one could kill an animal in the forest during this period
Norms	Women were forbidden from consuming animals like hyena. Pregnant women especially were also forbidden from consuming snakes, rat moles or dead animals.	This reduced pressure on protected areas resources (especially animals)
Custom	This day is locally known as (‘Ngueiur’/‘traditional day’. It had a special ceremonial significance and was respected once a week. On this day, initiated members of institutions (like afon”, ‘nfan’, ‘nzock tong’) communicated with the gods of the land. This is done to appease the gods to be happy and bless their land.	This institution (law day) did not permit villagers to use or access forest resources or even farm.
Colonial institutions in the Santchou landscape
	Structures
Traditinal council ‘ndahkem’, ‘akeum’,	Enforcement of forest regulations	Ensured compliance with village norms and customs.
Secret societies ‘afon’, ‘nfan’,‘ebwin-mwat’ ‘ekale’‘nguieur’,	Protect the villages from harm and danger and create fear in the minds and hearts of the people	Limit illicit forest activities
Cultural groups ‘malongei’,‘abombuh’, ‘jumtom’, ‘ntuku’, ‘mboh’, ‘nzock tong’, ‘musoh’. ‘nsoc’, ‘akomnwah’ .	Their role in forest management was to circulate information on environment protection. They committed themselves to enforcing forest management rules by respecting and complying with the rules and rights regulating forest management. This was evident through compliance to the rights of exclusion from certain practices (malongei) with regard to the forest	Collective mechanisms to tackle fire outbreak in the reserve.
Village management committee ‘emumat’	Monitored and controlled all forest-related products leaving the villages.	Reduced illegal exploitation of the forest.
	Processes
Taboo	Killing of animals was considered a taboo. Animals in the reserve were considered as totems. These included elephant, monkeys, snakes, buffalo, etc. Encroachment or trespass into secret forest was considered a taboo.	Hunting reduced in the reserve.
Beliefs	The belief in totems; animals were believed to represent humans in the form of snakes, monkeys, elephants, etc. They believed in the existence of sacred forests. Members of secret societies visited such sites once in two years to perform cultural rights.	Increase wildlife due to limited hunting and increase forest greenery.
Norms	Women were forbidden from consuming animals like hyena. Pregnant women especially were also forbidden from consuming snakes, rat moles or dead animals.	Exploitation of animal was reduced due to limited consumers of bush meat
Custom	This day is locally known as ‘law day’ or ‘Nguieur’ and had a special ceremonial significance. This institution (law day) did not permit villagers to use or access forest resources or even farm. It was a day of sacrifices; therefore, this day can be termed a ‘native conservation day’.	Limited exploitation of the reserve.
Post colonial institutions in the Santchou landscape
	Structures
Traditional Council‘ndahkem’, “akeum “notable de chef.	Their role focused on the enforcement of forest regulations and settlement of disputes.	Despite their functions, the forest suffers from degradation; institutions have been politicized.
Secret societies: ‘afon’, ‘nfan’,‘abombuh’, ‘jumtom’, ‘ntuku’, ‘mboh’ ‘nguieur’, ‘ebwin-mwat’, ‘nzock tong’,‘ekale’ ‘musoh’.”, ‘nsoc’, ‘akomnwah’)	-Village protection from imminent danger and witchcraft. Maintain peace.
-Maintains and educate villagers on traditional patterns of forest management and enforces rules	Division of institutional labour does not solve protected area degradation problem
Cultural groups
‘malongei’,	Diffused information on environment protection and worked for communal unity. Ensures compliance with the rules and rights regulating forest management.	Enforcement is quite weak; protected area degradation continues.
Village management committees (‘emumat’, group.)	This structure monitors and controls all forest products harvested. They regulate illegal exploitation of the reserve and ensure the safety of the reserve.	Limited sanctions at village level
Vigilante group	This structure monitors and controls all forest products harvested. They regulate illegal exploitation of the reserve and ensure the safety of the reserve.	Reduction in deforestation and illegal activities in the reserve
Nyampau	Male-centred spiritual group. Focused on performing rites around the protected area.	Forest protection
Abashi/ebashijong	Monitors and protect the village from evil spirits and witchcraft. – fortify the land and maintain peace, unity, and growth, and promote culture and tradition laid down by forefathers.	Not strictly protected area management oriented, but demonstrates potentials to enforce rules are available.
	Processes
Taboo	Trespass into sacred forests is possible only for members of the Abashi, nyampau, etc. The members of these societies go there once in two years to perform cultural rights. It is a taboo to kill certain animals in the reserve.	Secret forest acts as buffer zones (safe haven for animals).
Beliefs	The belief in the existence of totems (totemism).	Limits hunting activities
Norms	Women are forbidden from consuming animals like hyena. Pregnant women especially were also forbidden from consuming snakes, rat moles or dead animals.	This is respected by very few women today.
Custom	The ‘nguieur’ is still respected – largely for the need to rest and not based on fear of spiritual repercussions. It is a ‘native conservation day’.	This limits expansion of farmlands into forests. However, some non-indigenes defy these days.

Figure 2. Forest management institutional landscape of Kilum-Ijim (pre-colonial to post-colonial period)

Table 5. Determinants of forest management institutional compliance and evolution.

	Evolution		Compliance
	Odd ratio	Std. err	Odds ratio	Std. Err.
Age of individual	0.967	0.035	1.042	0.051
Individual is male	1.080	0.113	0.498	0.160
Has at least secondary education	1.114	0.163	1.452	0.851
Individual is married	0.132	0.184	0.004	0.011
Main occupation is not agriculture	1.704	0.657	1.241	0.320
Individual is migrant	0.421	0.566	0.133	0.197
Individual is in community leadership	1.110	0.918	2.449	0.084
Member of community organization	2.296	0.476	2.805	0.369
Longevity in area (>5 years)	1.081	0.121	1.082	0.135
Proximity to reserve (< 3 km)	7.520	0.581	4.899	0.966
Constant	7.250	0.803	2.696	0.986
Observations	65		65