Coping styles among Chinese adolescents: The development and validation of a smartphone coping style scale

Figures & data

Table 1. Coding results of qualitative materials in NVivo 11.

Coping strategies	Examples taken from interview materials	Nodes	References
Playing games	“… I play games on my smartphone when I’m in bad mood …;” “… sometimes I play games on my smartphone to cope with difficulties I am facing.”	10	16
Watching anime or variety shows	“… When I have negative emotions, I sometimes watch variety shows, but not very frequently ….”	3	3
Reading online novels	“… I read interesting online novels when I feel stressed once a while.”	3	3
Keeping a diary on one’s smartphone	“… I write about stressful events or troublesome things in my smartphone memo, which feels like keeping a diary and venting.”	3	3
Browsing short video clips (e.g., TikTok)	“… I usually watch funny short clips on TikTok to make me feel better.”	13	13
Listening to music	“… when I feel stressed, I listen to music on my smartphone to relieve tension or anxious emotions … .”	22	24
Using social media	Posting or sharing. (e.g., “… when I experience stressful events or irritation, I post or share on my WeChat account …, which can help me vent my negative emotions.”)	3	3
	Seeking emotional support or solutions to problems from others. (e.g., “it is very useful to talk with my friends on my smartphone; they comfort me and relieve my stress.”)	19	19
Spending money online	“… online shopping on my smartphone sometimes helps me reduce my negative feelings or stress.”	2	2
Finding solutions to problems	“… when I experience problems or difficulties, I usually use search engines through my smartphone to find proper solutions ….”	5	6
Taking selfies	“… I take beautiful photos of myself to regulate my mood or get rid of bad feelings ….”	1	1

Notes. A node denotes one interview material or a participant; for a total of 29 nodes, we have 29 interviews. References denote how many times the interview transcripts refer to coping strategies used.

Table 2. Factor loadings from EFA.

Items	F1	F2	F3
I1. I use utilities (e.g., an alarm clock, a calendar, a calculator, etc.) on my phone to help me solve problems in my life.	.831
I2. I use my smartphone to search for solutions to problems or difficulties.	.796
I3. I use my smartphone to look for solutions to problems when I encounter them.	.771
I4. I use smartphone functions such as maps, weather forecasts, etc. to solve problems in my life.	.760
I5. I use my smartphone to look up information that can help me solve problems with my studies.	.734
I6. I use my smartphone to listen to music when I am stressed or in trouble.	.613
I7. I share and vent my frustrations on social media (e.g., Weibo, QQ zone, and WeChat).		.872
I8. I spend money or shop on my smartphone when I experience something annoying.		.868
I9. I watch short videos (e.g., “TikTok” or “Kuaishou”) on my smartphone when I am upset.		.800
I10. I play mobile games when I am under pressure or in trouble.		.640
I11. I read online novels on my phone when I get into trouble.		.566
I12. When I am upset, I find someone to talk to on my phone.		.518
I13. I seek help from teachers by contacting them on my smartphone to solve problems or overcome difficulties.			.865
I14. I seek help from my family members by contacting them on my smartphone to solve problems or overcome difficulties.			.790
I15. I seek help from my parents by contacting them on my smartphone to solve problems or overcome difficulties.†			—
I16. I seek help from my elders by contacting them on my smartphone to solve problems or overcome difficulties.†			—
I17. When I face something annoying, I seek help from my family members by contacting them on my smartphone to solve problems or overcome difficulties.†			—
I18. I seek help from friends and family I know by contacting them on my smartphone to solve problems or overcome difficulties.†			—

Note. † denotes items added to factor 3 of the revised developed scale during the second investigation. These items were not measured in the first investigation, so they have no loadings on factor 3. F1= solving daily problems, F2 = distracting negative emotion, F3 = seeking social support.

Figure 1. CFA model of smartphone coping.

Note. SolveProb=solving daily problems, DistEmot=distracting negative emotion, SeekSupp= seeking social support.

Table 3. Reliability and construct validity of the smartphone coping style scale across samples.

	Items	αF1	αF2	αF3	αTotal	χ^2	df	CFI	TLI	RSMEA
Sample 1 (n = 1088)	14	.897	.875	.835	.915	433.879	73	.959	.948	.067
Sample 2 (n = 868)	18	.799	.747	.889	.883	528.231	125	.935	.920	.061
Sample 3 (n = 176)	18	.817	.718	.896	.882	—	—	—	—	—

Note. The items tested in sample 1 and samples 2 and 3 differ because the developed scale includes 4 additional items for factor 3.

Table 4. Partial correlations between the smartphone coping style scale and other related validity measures.

	Solving daily problems	Distracting negative emotion	Seeking social support
Anxiety	.136**	.202**	−.053
Depression	.071*	.209**	−.095*
Problem-analyzing coping	.245**	−.012	.218**
Risky coping	.111**	.294**	.052
Support-seeking coping	.224**	.088*	.297**

Note. ** p < .001, * p < .05. Covariates include age and gender.