3D-printed upper limb prostheses: a review

Figures & data

Figure 1. Robohand: the hand that was the inspiration for the development of the global community. Image reproduced with permission from Brod Marsh on behalf of Robohand Australia see http://www.robohand.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/2013-03-29-11-10-58-b.jpg, i.e., the copyright holder.

Figure 2. Examples of 3D-printed upper limb prostheses (a) Andrianesis’ Hand: an externally powered forearm prosthesis. Andrianesis and Tzes [1], with permission of Springer. (b) Gosselin’s hand: a body powered forearm prosthesis. Original source: Laliberte et al. No changes made. Reproduced under creative commons attribution 3.0 [3]. (c) Cyborg beast: a body-powered hand prosthesis. Published with permission of Zuniga [21]. (d) Handiii COYOTE: an externally powered forearm prosthesis. ©exiii, Inc. published with permission [34]. (e) IVIANA 2.0: a passive forearm prosthesis. Published with permission of Evan Kuester [37]. (f) Scand: a passive adjustable forearm prosthesis. Original source http://www.instructables.com/id/3D-Printing-Prosthetic-Hand-Make-it-Real-Challen/Scott Allen. No changes made. Reproduced under creative commons attribution 3.0 [57].

Table 1. General specifications and mechanical specifications of the 3D-printed hand prostheses.

	Type of Prosthesis	Type of Actuation	Type of Control	Weight (g)	Force distribution	Flexor	Extensor
Prostheses found in the scientific literature
Andrianesis’ hand [1], Figure 2(a)	Forearm	EP	EMG	350	Independent	Cables/cords	ML
Bahari’s hand [2]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	ML	Cables/cords
Gosselin’s hand [3], Figure 2(b)	Forearm	BP	SH	–	Distributed	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
Gretsch’ HAND [4]	Forearm	EP	EMG	240	Independent	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Groenewegen’s hand [5]	Forearm	BP	–	71	Distributed	ML	CM
O’Neill’s HAND [6]	Forearm	EX	EMG	960	Independent	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
Simone’s hand [7]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
Prostheses found by performing an internet search
3D-printed prosthesis ecuador [16]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
Adjustable thumb [17]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Biohand [18]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	ML	ML
Bionico hand [19]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
Cyborg arm [20]	Forearm	BP	Elbow	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Cyborg beast [21], Figure 2(c)	Hand	BP	Wrist	1.315	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Cyborg beast with I.W.M. [22]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Dextrus EMG [23]	Forearm	EP	EMG	450	Independent	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
DIY prosthetic hand & forearm [24]	Forearm	EP	Voice	–	Independent	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
Falcon hand V1 [25]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic bands
Falcon hand V2 [26]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic bands
Flexy arm [27]	Forearm	BP	Elbow	–	Equal	Cables/cords	CM
Flexy hand [28]	Forearm	BP	–	–	Equal	Cables/cords	CM
Flexy hand 2 [29]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	CM
Flexy hand – filaflex remix [30]	Forearm	BP	–	–	Equal	Cables/cords	CM
Galileo hand [31]	Forearm	BP	SH	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
HACKberry [32]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	ML	ML
Handiii [33]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	ML	ML
Handiii COYOTE [34] Figure 2(d)	Forearm	EP	EMG	750	Independent	ML	ML
Hollies hand [35]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	CM
InMoov 2 hand [36]	Forearm	EP	EMG	450	Independent	ML	ML
IVIANA 2.0 [37] Figure 2(e)	Forearm	PS	N/A	–	N/A	N/A	N/A
JD-1 [38]	Forearm	BP	–	–	Distributed	Cables/cords	CM
K-1 [39]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Latest bionic arm [40]	Forearm	EP	EMG	250	Independent	Cables/cords	CM
Limbitless Arm [41]	Upper arm	EP	EMG	–	Equal	Cables/cords	CM
Manu print (Re hand) [42]	Forearm	BP	–	–	Distributed	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Mind controlled robotic hand [43]	Upper arm	EP	EEG	–	Independent	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
Muscle robot hand [44]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	Compressed air	CM
Not impossible [45]	Forearm	BP	Elbow	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Nu hand [46]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Odysseus hand [47]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	–	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
One-hinged Cyborg beast [48]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Prosthetic/robotic hand [49]	Forearm	BP	–	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic bands
Prótesis Cosmética [50]	Forearm	PS	N/A	–	N/A	N/A	N/A
Raptor hand [51]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Raptor reloaded [52]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
RIT arm [53]	Forearm	BP	Elbow	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Roboarm [54]	Upper arm	EP	EEG	2000	Independent	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
Robohand [55]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Robot hand [56]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Equal	Cables/cords	CM
Scand [57] Figure 2(f)	Forearm	PA	N/A	–	N/A	N/A	N/A
Snap-together Robohand [58]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Tact [59]	Forearm	EP	EMG	350	Independent	Cables/cords	Elastic bands
Talon flextensor 1.0 [60]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Talon hand 2.0 [61]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Tenim hand [62]	Forearm	BP	SH	–	Distributed	Cables/cords	Cables/cords
The lucky paw prosthetic hand [63]	Hand	BP	Finger	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords
Victory hand [64]	Forearm	BP	SH	–	Distributed	ML	ML
Youbionic [65]	Forearm	EP	EMG	–	Independent	ML	ML
Zero point frontiers [66]	Hand	BP	Wrist	–	Equal	Cables/cords	Elastic cords

BP: body-powered; EP: externally powered; PS: passive static; PA: passive adjustable; SH: shoulder harness; ML: mechanical linkages; CM: compliant mechanisms.

Figure 3. Almost two-thirds of the devices are forearm prostheses from which slightly more than half of the devices are externally powered.

Figure 4. Slightly more than half of all the prostheses are body powered from which slightly more than half of the devices are controlled by the wrist.

Table 2. Weight of the 3D-printed hand prostheses. Only 11 of the 58 3D-printed upper limb prostheses specified their weights.

	Weight (g)
Andrianesis’ hand [1]	350
Gretsch’ hand [4]	240^a
Groenewegen’s hand [5]	71^b
O’Neill’s hand [6]	960
Cyborg beast [21]	131.5
Dextrus EMG [23]	450
Handiii COYOTE [34]	750
InMoov 2 hand [36]	450^b
Latest bionic arm [40]	250
Roboarm [54]	2000
Tact [59]	350^b

^a Estimated weight by the developers.

^b Excluding connector or socket to fit a human arm.

Figure 5. More than half of the actuated hands have an equal force between the fingers. Slightly more than a third of the hands have fingers with independent force due to a separate motor for each finger. Only a small number of the hands have a mechanical linkage system to distribute the force along the fingers.

Figure 6. The type of flexor used to close the prosthesis. The majority of the hands use cables or cords to close the hand. The remainder of the hands use mechanical linkages and one uses compressed air.

Figure 7. The type of extensor used to open the prosthesis. Almost two-thirds of the hands use elasticity in the form of elastic cords or bands or compliant mechanisms to open the hand automatically.

Table 3. Kinematic specifications of the 3D-printed hand prostheses.

				Range of motion					Grasp type
	Joints	DOF	Actuators	MCP joints (°)	PIP joints (°)	DIP joints (°)	Thumb flexion (°)	Thumbcircumduction (°)	Adaptive grip	Achievable grasps
Prostheses found in scientific literature
Andrianesis’ hand [1], Figure 2(a)	15	15	9	0-105	0–90	0–25	0–90	0–50	Yes, Me.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Bahari’s hand [2]	14	14	5	0–80	0–100	0–65	0–80	N/A	Yes, El.	Power, hook, spherical
Gosselin’s hand [3], Figure 2(b)	15	15	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–25	Yes, Me.	Power, precision, lateral
Groenewegen’s hand [4]	15	15	1 (BP)	0–90	0–45	0–45	0–90	N/A	Yes, Me.	Power, lateral
Gretsch’ hand [5]	10	10	5	0–100	0–90	N/A	0–90	N/A	Yes, El.	Power, hook, lateral
O’Neill’s hand [6]	15	15	5	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–45	0–90	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral
Simone’s hand [7]	15	15	5	0–110	0–90	0–90	0–45	N/A	Yes, El.	Power, precision
Prostheses found with the internet search
3D-printed prosthesis ecuador [16]	15	15	5	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Adjustable thumb [17]	11	11	1 (BP)	0–45	0–60	N/A	0–60	N/A	No	Power, precision, lateral
Biohand [18]	10	10	5	0–90	0–90	N/A	N/A	0–45	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral
Bionico hand [19]	16	16	5	0–75	0–90	0–80	0–90	0–45	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Cyborg arm [20]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–45	0–60	N/A	0–60	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Cyborg beast [21], Figure 2(c)	10	10	1 (BP)	0–45	0–60	N/A	0–60	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Cyborg beast with I.W.M. [22]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–45	0–60	N/A	0–60	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Dextrus EMG [23]	15	15	5	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
DIY prosthetic hand & forearm [24]	16	16	5	0–75	0–90	0–80	0–90	0–45	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Falcon hand V1 [25]	13	13	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–45	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Falcon hand V2 [26]	11	11	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	N/A	0–90	0–90	No	Power, Precision, lateral
Flexy arm [27]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–45	0–80	0–45	0–30	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Flexy hand [28]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–45	0–80	0–45	0–30	N/A	No	Power, precision, hook, lateral
Flexy hand 2 [29]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–45	0–80	0–45	0–30	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Flexy hand – Filaflex remix [30]	15	14	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–45	0–30	N/A	No	Power, lateral
GalileoHand [31]	11	11	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	N/A	0–90	0–90	No	Power, precision, lateral
HACKberry [32]	10	10	6	0–90	0–90	N/A	N/A	0–90	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral
Handiii [33]	15	15	6	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Handiii COYOTE [34], Figure 2d	15	15	6	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Hollies hand [35]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–45	0–20	N/A	0–20	N/A	No	Power, lateral
InMoov 2 hand [36]	15	15	4	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–45	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral
IVIANA 2.0 [37], Figure 2(e)	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
JD-1 [38]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–45	0–45	0–45	0–45	N/A	No	Power, lateral
K-1 [39]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–45	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Latest bionic arm [40]	15	15	5	0–90	0–45	0–20	0–90	0–60	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Prostheses found with the internet search
Limbitless arm [41]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–45	0–80	0–45	0–30	N/A	No	Power, precision, hook, lateral
Manu print (Re hand) [42]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–45	0–45	N/A	Yes, Me.	Power, lateral
Mind controlled robotic hand [43]	16	16	5	0–75	0–90	0–80	0–90	0–45	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Muscle robot hand [44]	5	>5	1(Air)	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	N/A	Yes, Pneumatic	Power, lateral
Not impossible [45]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	N/A	0–60	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Nu hand [46]	19	19	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–30	No	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Odysseus hand [47]	6	6	1 (BP)	0–90	0–45	N/A	0–45	N/A	No	Power, lateral
One-hinged Cyborg beast [48]	8	8	1 (BP)	0–45	0–60	N/A	No thumb	No thumb	No	Power
Prosthetic/robotic hand [49]	15	15	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Prótesis Cosmética [50]	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Raptor hand [51]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–80	0–90	N/A	0–70	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Raptor reloaded [52]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–80	0–90	N/A	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
RIT arm [53]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–90	0–45	N/A	0–30	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Roboarm [54]	14	14	5	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	N/A	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Robohand [55]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	N/A	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Robot hand [56]	15	15	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	N/A	No	Power, spherical
Scand [57], Figure 2(f)	1	1	1(BP)	N/A	N/A	N/A	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Snap-together Robohand [58]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	N/A	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Tact [59]	11	11	6	0–90	0–90	N/A	0–90	0–90	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Talon flextensor 1.0 [60]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–100	0–45	N/A	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Talon hand 2.0 [61]	10	10	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	N/A	0–90	N/A	No	Power, lateral
Tenim hand [62]	15	15	1(BP)	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	0–90	Yes, Me.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
The luck paw prosthetic hand [63]	12	12	1 (BP)	0–90	0–90	0–90	No thumb	No thumb	No	Power
Victory hand [64]	14	14	1 (BP)	0–90	0–45	0–45	0–45	0–90	No	Power, precision, lateral
Youbionic [65]	11	11	5	0–90	0–90	N/A	0–45	0–45	Yes, El.	Power, precision, lateral + H,T,S
Zero point frontiers [66]	6	6	1 (BP)	0–90	0–45	N/A	No thumb	No thumb	No	Power

BP: body powered; Me.: mechanical; El.: electrical; H,T,S: hook, tripod, spherical.

Figure 8. The various fabrication methods used to print the prostheses. The majority of the devices are made using FDM technology

Table 4. Print specifications of the 3D-printed hand prostheses. The first part of the table shows the 3D-printed upper limb prostheses found in scientific literature and the second part of the table shows the devices found with the internet search.

	Fabrication method	Material	Material cost ($)	Design availability
Prostheses found in scientific literature
Andrianesis’ hand [1], Figure 2(a)	SLS	Duraform HST	–	No
Bahari’s hand [2]	SLA	Acrylic plastic	–	No
Gosselin’s hand [3], Figure 2(b)	FDM	ABS	–	No
Gretsch’ hand [4]	FDM	ABS	300	No
Groenewegen’s hand [5]	SLS	Nylon	–	No
O’Neill’s hand [6]	FDM	ABS	500	No
Simone’s hand [7]	Polyjet	Full Cure 720	–	No
Prostheses found with the internet search
3D-printed prosthesis ecuador [16]	FDM	–	270	No
Adjustable thumb [17]	FDM	ABS	–	No
Biohand [18]	FDM	–	±300	No
Bionico hand [19]	FDM	ABS	250	Yes
Cyborg arm [20]	FDM	ABS	–	No
Cyborg beast [21], Figure 2(c)	FDM	ABS	50	Yes
Cyborg beast with I.W.M. [22]	FDM	ABS	–	No
Dextrus EMG [23]	FDM	PLA or ABS	±1000	Yes
DIY prosthetic hand & forearm [24]	FDM	–	–	Yes
Falcon hand V1 [25]	FDM	ABS	–	Yes
Falcon hand V2 [26]	FDM	ABS	–	Yes
Flexy arm [27]	FDM	FLA & Filaflex	–	Yes
Flexy hand [28]	FDM	FLA & Filaflex	–	Yes
Flexy hand 2 [29]	FDM	FLA & Filaflex	–	Yes
Flexy hand – Filaflex remix [30]	FDM	Filaflex	–	Yes
GalileoHand [31]	FDM	PLA or ABS	–	Yes
HACKberry [32]	FDM	–	200	Yes
Handiii [33]	Unknown	–	300	No
Handiii COYOTE [34], Figure 2(d)	Unknown	–	300	No
Hollies hand [35]	SLS	Nylon	–	Yes
InMoov 2 hand [36]	FDM	–	–	Yes
IVIANA 2.0 [37], Figure 2(e)	Unknown	–	–	No
JD-1 [38]	FDM	Nylon	–	No
K-1 [39]	FDM	–	–	No
Latest bionic arm [40]	FDM	–	±3000	No
Limbitless arm [41]	FDM	ABS & Ninjaflex	350	Yes
Manu print (Re hand) [42]	FDM	–	20	No
Mind controlled robotic hand [43]	FDM	ABS	500	Yes
Muscle robot hand [44]	FDM	PLA & Silicone	–	Yes
Not impossible [45]	FDM	–	100	No
Nu hand [46]	FDM	–	–	No
Odysseus hand [47]	FDM	ABS	–	Yes
One-hinged Cyborg beast [48]	FDM	ABS	–	Yes
Prosthetic/robotic hand [49]	FDM	PLA	1	Yes
Prótesis Cosmética [50]	Unknown	–	–	No
Raptor hand [51]	FDM	PLA	–	Yes
Raptor reloaded [52]	FDM	PLA	–	Yes
RIT arm [53]	FDM	–	–	Yes
Roboarm [54]	FDM	PLA	350	Yes
Robohand [55]	FDM	ABS	500	Yes
Robot hand [56]	FDM	ABS & flexible plastic	–	Yes
Scand [57], Figure 2(f)	SLS	DM_9795 & DM_9770	–	No
Snap-together Robohand [58]	FDM	PLA	–	Yes
Tact [59]	FDM	–	250	Yes
Talon flextensor 1.0 [60]	FDM	ABS	–	Yes
Talon hand 2.0 [61]	FDM	ABS	–	Yes
Tenim hand [62]	SLS	Nylon with ceramic layer	–	No
The lucky paw prosthetic hand [63]	FDM	–	–	Yes
Victory hand [64]	FDM	–	100	No
Youbionic [65]	SLS	Nylon	±1000	No
Zero point frontiers [66]	FDM	PLA	5	No

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