The Ambivalent Freedoms of Indonesian Jazz

Abstract

This paper presents an historical outline and discusses the contemporary meanings of Indonesian jazz. Transformations in the jazz scene following the transition from Indonesia's first to second totalitarian regime (1964–1967) are linked to market reforms that opened the nation to increased Western investment and media. Jazz later played a conspicuous role in the tumultuous dissolution of dictatorial rule and the introduction of democratic reform. For some Indonesians, jazz embodied the complex and ambivalent transformations of freedom itself as Indonesia emerged as the world's third largest democratic state at the turn of the twenty-first century. During the reform era Indonesian jazz has been marked by a tension between adherence to American models and efforts to localize it through hybrid experiments that embody new collectivities in the reintroduction of civil society.

Notes

¹The other half of this inversion, the relationship between gamelan and Euro-American identity, is beyond the scope of this project but has been discussed by: Maria Mendonça, “Javanese Gamelan in Britain: Communitas, Affinity, and Other Stories” (Ph.D. diss., Wesleyan University, 2002); Peter Hadley, “New Music for Gamelan by North American Composers” (master's thesis, Wesleyan University, 1993); Henry Spiller, forthcoming.

²The present article adds to the growing number of works focusing on global jazz traditions. See especially: E. Taylor Atkins, Blue Nippon (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001); E. Taylor Atkins, ed. Jazz Planet (University of Mississippi, 2003); George McKay, Circular Breathing: The Cultural Politics of Jazz in Britain (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005); Paul Austerlitz, Jazz Consciousness: Music, Race, and Humanity (Middletown: Wesleyan, 2005); Steven Feld, Jazz Cosmopolitanism (Durham: Duke, 2012).

³In contrast, we are constantly reminded of the difference between American democracy and Indonesian demokrasi, and Western modernity and the Indonesian moderen.

⁴Oki Rahadianto Sutopo, “Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas Jazz Yogyakarta 2002–2010” (master's thesis, Universitas Indonesia, 2010), 42. Josias T. Adriaan. “Penggabungan Idiom-Idiom Gamelan ke Dalam Musik Jazz. Prodi Pengkajian Seni Pertunjukan dan Seni Rupa” (master's thesis, Universitas Gadjah Mada, 2007).

⁵Sutopo, “Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas,” 42.

⁶Bonny Dwifriansyah, “Jejak Langkah Jazz di Indonesia,” Wartajazz.com, 21 August, 2011.

⁷Allard J.M. Möller, Batavia, a Swinging Town!: Dansorkesten en Jazzbands in Batavia, 1922–1949 (Den Haag: Moesson, 1987), 36.

⁸Jean Gelman Taylor, The Social World of Batavia: Europeans and Eurasians in Colonial Indonesia. Second Edition (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009).

⁹Möller, Batavia, a Swinging Town!, 10. The (to some rather unfortunate) influence of Whiteman in the evolution of Asian jazz is discussed at length in E. T. Atkins, Blue Nippon.

¹⁰Pekka Gronow, “The Record Industry: the Growth of a Mass Medium,” Popular Music 3 (1983): 53–76.

¹¹Andrew F. Jones, Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001).

¹²K. Sen and D.T. Hill, Media, Culture and Politics in Indonesia (London: Equinox, 2006).

¹³Atkins, Blue Nippon, 59.

¹⁴Möller, Batavia, a Swinging Town!, 20.

¹⁵Jennifer Lindsay, “Making Waves: Private Radio and Local Identities in Indonesia,” Indonesia 64 (1997): 106.

¹⁶Möller, Batavia, a Swinging Town!, 19.

¹⁷Sen and Hill, Media, Culture and Politics, 181.

¹⁸Alfred Ticoalu, email message to author, 15 July, 2011. We await the publication of Ticoalu's important and detailed scholarship on this era.

¹⁹“Javanese Swing Authority Knows All the Bands,” Springfield Daily Republican, 2 October, 1941.

²⁰Ibid.

²¹This image should be read within the context of Suharto's maneuvers to marginalize Sukarno following the aborted coup of 1965, described below. In a series of articles published subsequently in Varia, Sukarno is portrayed as a socialite and cultural impresario, rather than as a political leader. The pieces have the tone of a retrospective and appeared just two months after Suharto signed the so-called Supersemar document giving him absolute authority.

²²Möller, Batavia, a Swinging Town!, 62.

²³Matthew Isaac Cohen, The Komedie Stamboel: Popular Theater in Colonial Indonesia, 1891–1903. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006).

²⁴Sooi Beng Tan, Bangsawan: a Social and Stylistic History of Popular Malay Opera (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993): 76–77. It is unclear to what extent the theater adopted jazz further afield in the archipelago. Yampolsky does not cite jazz as a source. Philip Yampolsky, et al. “Indonesia.” In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/42890pg8 (accessed 8 December, 2011).

²⁵See Amir Pasaribu, Analisis Musik Indonesia (Jakarta: PT Pantja Simpati, 1986); Möller 1987.

²⁶Möller, Batavia, a Swinging Town!, 8.

²⁷Atkins, Blue Nippon.

²⁸Miller refers to seriosa as a “paraclassical” genre. See Christopher Miller, Becoming Cosmopolitan, Going Nativist: Contemporary Art Music in Indonesia. Unpublished thesis draft. (Middletown: Wesleyan University, 2011).

²⁹See for instance: Ceto Mundiarso and Kusumo Nugroho, Sebuah Catatan Sejarah Jazz di Indonesia, accessed 28 July, 2011, https://jazzkaltim.wordpress.com/2010/02/16/sebuah-catatan-sejarah-jazz-di-indonesia; Bonny Dwifriansyah, “Jejak Langkah Jazz di Indonesia,” Wartajazz.com, 27 November, 2006.

³⁰For an expression of this sentiment see Sutopo, “Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas,” 77.

³¹The prominent independence era composers and critics Manik, Sitompul, and Simanjutak studied at St. Xavarius. Miller, Becoming Cosmopolitan.

³²The Atomic Boys practiced and performed while interned in Thailand, first playing on homemade instruments and then on instruments lent by the Thai king, himself a student of jazz (Möller, Batavia, a Swinging Town!, 8).

³³Ibid., 80.

³⁴Philip Yampolsky, et al. “Indonesia.” In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/42890pg8 (accessed November 29, 2011).

³⁵Here Pasaribu selects Herry Brown's jazz band and the Hawaiian Syncopators for special critique.

³⁶Quoted in Miller, Becoming Cosmopolitan, 58.

³⁷Amir Pasaribu, Analisis Musik Indonesia (Jakarta: PT Pantja Simpati, 1986[1955]). See also Miller, Becoming Cosmopolitan, 84.

³⁸William H. Frederick, “Dreams of Freedom, Moments of Despair: Armijn Pané and the Imagining of Modern Indonesian Culture,” in Imagining Indonesia: Cultural Politics and Political Culture, ed. J.W. Schiller and B. Martin-Schiller (Athens OH: Ohio University Press, 1997), 61.

⁴⁰Sen and Hill, Media, Culture and Politics.

³⁹Andrew Weintraub, Dangdut Stories: A Social and Musical History of Indonesia's Most Popular Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 57.

⁴¹This image should be read within the context of Suharto's maneuvers to marginalize Sukarno following the aborted coup of 1965, described below. In a series of articles published subsequently in Varia, a glossy society magazine, Sukarno is portrayed as a socialite and cultural impresario, rather than as a political leader. The pieces have the tone of a retrospective and appeared just two months after Suharto signed the so-called Supersemar document giving him absolute authority.

⁴²George Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia (New York: The New Press, 1996), 111.

⁴³Mundiarso and Nugroho, Sebuah Catatan Sejarah.

⁴⁴Moerad Dede, Jazz Indonesia. (Jakarta: Matra Multi Media, 1995); “Berita Dari Bill Saragih,” Tempo, May 12, 1973.

⁴⁵See Penny M.von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004); Ingrid Monson, Freedom sounds: Civil Rights Call Out to Jazz and Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

⁴⁶Andrew Right Hurley, The Return of Jazz: Joachim-Ernst Berendt and West German Cultural Change. (New York: Berghahn Books), 164.

⁴⁷Dede, Jazz Indonesia.

⁴⁸R. Muhammad Mulyadi, Industri Musik Nasional (Pop, Rock dan Jazz). Master's Thesis (Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia, 1999), 44.

⁴⁹Andrew F. Jones, Yellow Music, 104.

⁵⁰John Roosa, Pretext for Mass Murder: The September 30th Movement and Suharto's Coup d'État in Indonesia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006).

⁵¹“Malam Jazz dan Bosannova di Aula Universitas Indonesia,” Varia, December 14, 1966; “Duta2 Jazz Indonesia ke Eropa,” Varia, December 4, 1967.

⁵²Polanyi appeared to be reacting against capitalist efforts to dismantle the social state F.D.R. assembled through the New Deal. In the capitalist discourse “planning and control [were] being attacked as a denial of freedom.” Quoted in David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

⁵³Quoted in Scott Saul, Freedom is, Freedom Ain't: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005). According to Saul: “others interpreted [Berlin's positive liberty] as referring to the ways in which the state seeks to mold citizens, determining which needs are true or false.”

⁵⁴Harvey, 2005, 2.

⁵⁵The practice of neoliberalism, in which elite power and wealth is protected against the market, is curiously in opposition to the theory of neoliberalism. Although it trumpets the logic of the market and the limiting of state power and regulation, it requires bailouts from that very state to prop it up following bad investments.

⁵⁸ “Jazz bukanlah type musik seperti beatles, jazz adalah sesuatu musik untuk benar2 dinikmati dirasapkan dan dirasakan dengan tenang. Dan hanjalah mereka jang mengerti seni musik jazz atau mempunjai minat dalam bidang musik jazz ini benar2 akan merasakan betapa indahnja dan mengesankan musik ini.”

⁵⁶“. . . menanamkan ketjintaan rakyat kepada musik jazz.” Varia, December 4, 1967

⁵⁷“. . . mendapat tempatnja pula di Indonesia,” Varia, December 4, 1967.

⁵⁹This is a repetition of the Platonic/Confucian notion that music itself instills either control or chaos within the person and society. Interestingly, as outlined in Atkins (Blue Nippon) and Jones (Yellow Music), jazz was often seen to have the opposite, chaotic, effect upon society in China and Japan (and America) during the early twentieth century.

⁶⁰The festival regularly hosted American jazz artists (including Dave Koz, Bob James, and Ron Reeves) to direct workshops and jam sessions.

⁶¹Sutopo, “Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas,” 70.

⁶²Christianity appears to be more highly represented in the jazz scene than in the Indonesian population as a whole.

⁶⁵“Adalah mendjadi harapan kita semua bahwa duta2 jazz Indonesia ini (rombongan musik jazz pertama keluar negeri dalam sedjarah permusikan di Indonesia) akan membawa nama baik bagi dunia musik di Indonesia disamping djuga memperkenalkan kepada masjarakat penggemar jazz Eropa bahwa Indonesia djuga punja pemain jazz jang dapat diketengahkan dan dibanggakan.” “Duta2 Jazz Indonesia ke Eropa,” Varia, December 4, 1967.

⁶³For more on the 1967 tour and Djanger Bali, see Hurley, The Return of Jazz, 199–204.

⁶⁴“Benny Mustafa: Bidangnja Jazz, Mentjari Nafkah Hidup Dilapangan Musik Pop,” Varia, October 28, 1970.

⁶⁶See von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World, 201.

⁶⁷Philip Yampolsky, Lokananta: A Discography of the National Recording Company of Indonesia, 1957–1985 (Madison: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin, 1987).

⁶⁸Sen and Hill, Media, Culture and Politics, 181.

⁶⁹“Mencoba Keluar Cakrawala,” Tempo, February 21, 1976. See Dede (Jazz Indonesia, 13) on the role of bossa nova as an aesthetic mediator in Indonesia.

⁷²“Jazz agaknja jang paling tepat untuk menggambarkan suasana djiwa para mahasiswa. Penuh inisiatif dan tak terduga. Musik jang banjak memberikan peluang kepada kebolehan individu ini memang merupakan santapan jang mengasjikkan bagi djiwa sudah mulai mentjapai saat-saat penentuan diri.” “Jazz: Tanpa Sarasehan,” Tempo, May 27, 1972.

⁷⁰“Terus Dah Jack,” Tempo, January 7, 1978.

⁷¹Marina Henschkel, “Perceptions of Popular Culture in Contemporary Indonesia: Five Articles from Tempo, 1980–90,” Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs 28, 2 (1994): 53–71.

⁷³See, for example, “Kesurupan, Baru Nyanyi,” Tempo, September 19, 1981.

⁷⁴Dede, Jazz Indonesia, 14.

⁷⁵“Kebanyakan musisi masih bersikap setengah hati dalam menggauli jazz. secara psikologis, mereka itu malu2 kucing dalam memainkan musik jazz. lantaran masih ada perasaan dan anggapn, bahwa musik jazz bukan milik sendiri. Selain faktor kurangnya kebebasan unsur lain yang menghambat perkembangan jazz di tana air, adalah sulitnya para musisi menangkap esensi jazz itu. Karena musisi jazz kita, mengenal jazz dengan cara mencangkok di tengah2 perjalanan sejarahnya.” (ibid: 21–3).

⁷⁶Partha Mitter, The Triumph of Modernism. India's Artists and the Avant-Garde, 1922–1947 (London: Reaktion, 2007).

⁷⁷Harry Roesli, “Keajaiban Dunia yang Kedelapan,” Kompas, November 20, 1988.

⁷⁸Organized by the guitarist Ireng Maulana (Roesli, “Keajaiban Dunia yang Kedelapan”).

⁷⁹The concept of upgrading pervaded New Order cultural diplomacy and was a keyword of its cyclic five-year development programs.

⁸⁰Franki Raden, “Pencarian Bahasa Musik Baru Dalam Jazz,” Kompas, November 16, 1997. The association of jazz with the elite and dangdut with the working class is theorized by Indera Ratna Irawati, “Musik Jazz dan Dangdut dalam Analisa Stratifikasi,” Jurnal Masyarakat Universitas Indonesia (1992).

⁸¹For more on this experiment and the idea of upgrading the working class form of dangdut through jazz see: “Trakebah Pemuncak Hari Pertama,” Kompas, November 8, 1997.

⁸²This is a venerable discourse that has occasionally dominated the philosophies and pedagogies at the national conservatories as well. See, for instance: Rustopo, Gendhon Humardani (1923–1983) Arsitek Dan Pelaksana Pembangunan Kehidupan Seni Tradisi Jawa Modern Mengindonesia: Suatu Biografi. Master's Thesis. (Yogyakarta: Universitas Gajah Mada, 1990); Judith Becker, Traditional Music in Modern Java: Gamelan in a Changing Society (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1980).

⁸³See: “Kesurupan, Baru Nyanyi,” Tempo, September 19, 1981.

⁸⁴Prior to that time many Indonesian jazz artists recorded on local labels including Hidayat, Irama, and Pramaqua, all based in Java. Radio stations broadcasting jazz during the late New Order expanded to include KLCBS, Radio Mara, El Shinta, and Trijaya FM, all based in Jakarta.

⁸⁷“Telepon berdering. Suaranya menembus walkman. Sialan. Aku memanfaatkan walkman ini untuk mengasingkan diriku dari dunia yang celeka ini.” Seno Gumira Ajidarma. Jazz, Parfum dan Insiden (Jakarta: Yayasan Bentang Budaya, 1996).

⁸⁹“Terkenang masa lalu, terkenang kehidupanku, aku berpikir-pikir: Apakah hidup seperti jazz? Kehidupan, seperti jazz, memang penuh improvisasi. . . Barangkali juga tidak pernah kita bayangkan. Barangkali juga kita tidak punya tujuan dalam hidup ini, tapi hidup itu akan selalu memberikan kejutan-kejutan sendiri. Banyak kejutan. Banyak insiden. Seperti jazz? Entahlah. Aku agak mabuk.”

⁸⁵Each vignette describes canonical American artists including Miles Davis, Coltrane, Mingus, Monk, and the Marsalises; none are Indonesian.

⁸⁶Michael Bodden, “Seno Gumira Ajidarma and Fictional Resistance to an Authoritarian State in 1990s Indonesia,” Indonesia 68 (1999), 155.

⁸⁸“Atmosfer jazz adalah klub-klub bawah tanah yang penuh asap rokok, bukan stadion besar untuk ratusan ribu orang. . . Itulah dunia jazz, dunia yang tidak mencari-cari efek. Dunia yang jujur. Ya, musik jazz adalah musik yang jujur” (ibid. 47).

⁹⁰“Musik jazz, tentu saja, lantas menyadarkan kita bahwa segala sesuatu tidak harus terikat kepada cara-cara tertentu. Begitu banyak cara lain, begitu banyak variasi” (ibid. 113).

⁹¹Mary Ida Bagus, “Transcending Transgression with Transgression: Inheriting Forsaken Souls in Bali,” in Celebrating Transgression: Method and Politics in Anthropological Studies of Culture. A Book in Honour of Klaus-Peter Köpping, ed. Ursula Rao, John Hutnyk, and Klaus-Peter Köpping (New York: Berhahn Books, 2006), 94.

⁹²Ariel Heryanto, “The Bearable Lightness of Democracy,” in The Return to Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia, ed. Thomas Reuter (Monash: Monash Asia Institute, 2010), 52.

⁹³Anthony Day, ed. Identifying With Freedom: Indonesia After Suharto (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007), 2.

⁹⁴Thomas Reuter, The Return to Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia (Monash: Monash Asia Institute, 2010).

⁹⁵Sutopo quotes a musician active in the standart scene: “A jazz musician cannot be said to perform jazz if he does not use the real book” (Musisi jazz belum bisa dikatakan memainkan jazz kalau belum khatam real book) (“Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas,” 57).

⁹⁶Heru Nugroho, “Sekelumit tentang Sosialisasi Jazz,” Wartajazz.com, August 6, 2000.

⁹⁷“. . . sudah terpengaruh oleh campur tangan industry.” Sutopo, “Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas,” 50. The influence of the Frankfurt school's critique of the “culture industry” was palpable in this discourse. Adorno's writings were widely available and influential in Yogyakarta during the reformasi.

⁹⁸“Pakemnya, standart pembelajaran universal di dunia seperti itu semua., Kalo drum, rudimennya- tekniknya harus spesifik, kalo jazz gimana, blues gimana, sudah ada rulenya, rulenya secara akademis, ilmiahlah. Di luar negeri, segala jenis ilmu ada ilmiahnya. Sudah ada teorinya, literaturenya. Karena kita niru ya kita ikut itu, karena kita blajar budaya luar.” Quoted in Sutopo, “Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas,” 77.

⁹⁹Interview July, 2011.

¹⁰⁰ Gong's interest in social pluralism reflected that of its main backer, the American Ford Foundation, which associated social pluralism with functional civil society and democracy.

¹⁰¹See also Amin Abdullah, “Mengawali Program Seniman Hau Ri Palu,” Gong 34 (2002).

¹⁰²Joko S. Gombloh, “Kecerdasan ‘Mainan’ Koko Harsoe,” Gong 32, 14 (2002).

¹⁰³The figuration of jazz and rock as foreign persists as well in Western ethnographic descriptions of the scene. See R. Anderson Sutton, “Gamelan Encounters with Western Music in Indonesia: Hybridity/Hybridism,” Journal of Popular Music Studies 22, 2 (2010): 180–97.

¹⁰⁴Gombloh, “Kecerdasan ‘Mainan’ Koko Harsoe.”

¹⁰⁵Frans Sartono and Heru Sri Kumoro, “Mbok Tuminem Pun Mendengarkan Jazz,” Kompas, November 29, 2009.

¹⁰⁶Sutopo, “Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas,” 52.

¹⁰⁷“Ngayogjazz 2008: Jazz Digelar di Kampung Agar Tak Eksklusif,” Kompas, November 20, 2008.

¹⁰⁸Franki Raden, “Pencarian Bahasa Musik Baru Dalam Jazz,” Kompas, November 16, 1997.

¹⁰⁹We might trace such a characterization back to Marx's notion of the Asian Mode of Production, which Anderson describes as a “political history that was . . . essentially cyclical: it contained no dynamic of cumulative development. The result was the . . . inertia and immutability of Asia.” Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: Verso Editions, 1974).

¹¹⁰“Virus Jazz di Mana-mana,” Kompas, December 6, 2009.

¹¹¹Dede, Jazz Indonesia, 10.

¹¹²Mundiarso and Nugroho, Sebuah Catatan Sejarah.

¹¹³See Nugroho, “Sekelumit tentang Sosialisasi Jazz”; Edwin Hara, “Dilema Sosialisasi Musik Jazz di Indonesia,” Wartajazz, August 22, 2000 (1997).

¹¹⁴Yusuf Giwangkoro, “Jazz + Rock = Fusion ???, Bermain Musik Jazz tetapi Disebut Rocker,” Wartajazz.com, August 26, 2000.

¹¹⁵“. . . menghapus label eksklusif pada musik jazz.” Quoted in Sutopo, “Dinamika Kekuasaan dalam Komunitas,” 25.

¹¹⁶Endah Sulistyorini. “Bila Jazz dan Wayang Bercinta di Bus,” Gong 55, 6 (2004): 28.

¹¹⁷“Virus Jazz di Mana-mana,” Kompas, December 6, 2009.

¹¹⁹“Jazz adalah milik semua orang dan bukan monopoli golongan tertentu. Musik jazz diciptakan bukan hanya untuk golongan borjuis, tetapi diciptakan melalui kebersamaan dan untuk semua. Dalam menikmati jazz, sebaiknya dipahami tentang universalisme dan kebersamaan. Jazz bukan musik yang EGOIS.” Edwin Hara. “Dilema Sosialisasi Musik Kazz di Indonesia,” Wartajazz, August 22, 2000 (1997).

¹¹⁸“Di negara asalnya, jazz adalah musik jalanan, musik rakyat.” “Ngayogjazz 2008: Jazz Digelar di Kampung Agar Tak Eksklusif,” Kompas, November 20, 2008.

¹²⁰Agatha Prahesty. Kontestasi Pemaknaan bagi Produksi Konsumsi, Sponsor dan Media Dalam axis Jakarta International Java Jazz Festival 2010, Master's Thesis (Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia, 2010).

¹²¹W. Sumadio, Bringing the World To Indonesia: Java Jazz Festival, 2005–2008 (Jakarta: R&W Publishing, 2009). By 2010 annual festivals included: Solo City Jazz, the Bandung World Jazz Festival, the Bali Jazz Festival, the Ambon Jazz Festival, Ngayogjazz, the Gadjah Mada Jazz Night, the Ramadhan Jazz Festival in Jakarta and Jazz Goes to Campus at the University of Indonesia.

¹²²Earle Brown, “Lecture from Darmstadrer Beitrage zur Nueun Musik X” SOURCE 1 (1967): 49.

¹²³Quoted in Stephen A. Crist, “Jazz as Democracy? Dave Brubeck and Cold War Politics,” Journal of Musicology 26, 2 (2009): 133–74.

¹²⁴Quoted in Atkins, Blue Nippon.

¹²⁵See for instance: Nugroh, “Sekelumit tentang Sosialisasi Jazz”, Edwin Hara, “Dilema Sosialisasi Musik Kazz di Indonesia,” Wartajazz, August 22, 2000 (1997); “Andhien Penyanyi Jazz Terbaik,” Kompas, October 22, 2000; Jodhi Yudono, “Ade Wonder Irawan, Pianis Kelas Dunia,” Kompas, December 13, 2010.

¹²⁶Quoted in Crist, “Jazz as Democracy?,” 133–74.

¹²⁷Ibid. 162.

¹²⁸See for instance Kabir Sehgal, Jazzocracy: Jazz, Democracy, and the Creation of a New American Mythology (Mishawaka, Indiana: Better World Books, 2008). As Crist reports, on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day in 2009, jazz trumpeter and artistic director of Jazz at Lincoln Center Wynton Marsalis and retired Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor hosted “A Celebration of America” based upon their shared belief that the basic tenets of American democracy and jazz are “one and the same” (Crist, “Jazz as Democracy?”). Monson cites the pervasive figuration of jazz as a “quintessentially democratic and uniquely American art form, as well as an enduring symbol for freedom” citing as examples: David W. Stone, Swing Changes: Big Band Jazz in New Deal America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994), Ken Burns's Jazz series on PBS, and Lewis A. Erenberg, Swingin' the Dream: Big Band Jazz and the Rebirth of American Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).

¹²⁹“Kita bisa menyebut musik ini menganut faham demokrasi. Coba kita perhatikan ciri-ciri berikut: kelompok yang memiliki ‘aturan-aturan’ dengan tetap mengahargai penampilan individu anggotanya, melakukan inovasi untuk mempertahankan keberadaan mereka, dihargai oleh kaum intelektual dari berbagai tingkat ekonomi dan dengan bijaksana membuka diri dari pengaruh luar. Jika ditelaah lebih jauh, jazz sebenarnya merupakan sesuatu yang lebih dari sekedar musik. Untuk mereka yang kritis, musik jazz dapat dikembangkan menjadi suatu ‘credo.’” Chico Hindarto. “Demokrasi Dalam Musik Jazz,” Wartajazz.com, November 22, 2001.

¹³⁰Prahesty (Kontestasi Pemaknaan bagi Produksi Konsumsi, 6); W. Sumadio (Bringing the World To Indonesia).

¹³³ “Ngayogjazz 2011 . . . diharapkan dapat menyebarkan pesan mengenai solidaritas yang berbasis gemeinschaft . . . Solidaritas yang dimaksud bukan dalam kerangka pertukaran rasional bagi maksimalisasi kepentingan individu namun lebih ke maksimalisasi kepentingan rakyat banyak.”

¹³⁵“Wujud kebebasan adalah tema dari acara Jazz Kemerdekaan – Kemerdekaan Jazz sekaligus dirampung untuk memperingati hari kebebasan bangsa Indonesia dari tangan penjajah. Tidak ada lagi tali menjerat tubuh dengan kaku sehingga tidak ada inspirasi yang terbuang sia-sia, bebas menentukan musik dan menghargai sesama adalah inti dari kemerdekaan jazz.”

¹³¹See Ipik Tanoyo, “Urban Jazz Crossover Beri Kebebasan,” Bali Post June 13, 2010; “Ratusan Pemusik di 16 Panggung,” Bali Post, March 7, 2011; Joko S. Gombloh. “Jazz Melayu, Jazz Apa Pula Ini?,” Gong 74, 8 (2006): 23.

¹³²Erie Setiawan, “Sorai Jazz di Tengah Desa” Gong 119, 11 (2010).

¹³⁴Erie Setiawan, “Sorai Jazz di Tengah Desa” Gong 119, 11 (2010).

¹³⁶Anthony Day, ed. Identifying With Freedom: Indonesia After Suharto (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007), 11.

¹³⁷Ariel Heryanto, “The Bearable Lightness of Democracy,” in The Return to Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia, ed. Thomas Reuter (Monash: Monash Asia Institute, 2010), 60.

¹³⁸Heryanto suggests that in the early reformasi demokrasi had become a “fetish” both for external observers and internal proponents of reform. Democracy in this discourse became “comparable to development” in the preceding decades and modernity before that (ibid 59).

¹³⁹Saul, Freedom is, Freedom Ain't, 10.

¹⁴⁰Ibid., 19.

¹⁴¹Ibid., 2–3.

¹⁴²Richard A. Shweder, Nancy C. Much, Manamohan Mahapatra, and Lawrence Park, “The ‘Big Three’ of Morality (Autonomy, Community, Divinity), and the ‘Big Three’ Explanations of Suffering” in Morality and Health ed. P. Rozin and A. Brandt (New York: Routledge, 1997).